CHAPTER 7 AOS2 1967-1975

Question 1

what was the transformation to the attitudes towards non-European immigration caused by?

Answer 1

after the retirement of Menzies in 1966, the Holt liberal-Country Party government passed the Migration Act 1966 which began to dismantle the White Australia Policy that had defined immigration policy since Federation and it also passed the legislation to enable the referendum that FCAATSI and other Aboriginal + Torres Strait Islander advocates had been demanding for

Question 2

what was the state of AUS’ economy in the 60s?

Answer 2

economically the country prospered through iron ore exports to Japan, adding to the continued strength of traditional primary products.

Question 3

what was the experience of Indigenous people in the 60s?

Answer 3

The 1967 referendum was both a turning point for Indigenous civil rights and a new phase in the struggle for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. The Federal Government’s unwillingness to use its new powers produced a new assertiveness among younger Indigenous leaders who were willing to push more forcefully (influenced by more violent forms of protest) for land rights and action to an end to Indigenous disadvantage

Question 4

what was the experience of women in the 60s?

Answer 4

Women broadened their claims from traditional fights for equal rights and pay to critique the structures of the patriarchy, the experiences of radical women in the anti-war and other protest movements, who had been marginalised by make protesters, shaped the women’s liberation movement

Question 5

what was the experience of queer people in the 60s?

Answer 5

Calls for the decriminalisation of homosexuality were soon joined by demands by gay + lesbian activists, not just for tolerance but for acceptance as some were unwilling to remain silent about their struggles and the discrimination which they faced

Question 6

what the political state of AUS in the 70s?

Answer 6

The new leader of the ALP, Gough Whitlam, championed a broader and more inclusive definition of rights, promising to ac on Indigenous concerns and women’s rights
The trade union movement aligned themselves with the campaign for equal pay and supported the Gurindi campaign at Wave Hill. Labor won the 1972 Federal election on a platform of reform and renewal after 23 years of conservative Liberal-Country Party rule

Question 7

what was the purpose of the 1967 referendum?

Answer 7

the referendum aimed to remove 2 clauses from the Constitution. Section 127 of the Constitution was the be completely removed as this fragment legalised the exclusion of Indigenous Australians from being counted in the census + Section 51 was to be amended (minor changes) through the removal of the words “other than the aboriginal race in any State.” This change allowed the Commonwealth to legislate for First Nations people

Question 8

what was the CAUSE of the 1967 referendum?

Answer 8

the FCAATSI greatly campaigned for this referendum as it promoted the notion that the referendum would act as an opportunity for white Australia to vote for Aboriginal rights and to ‘right wrongs.’ many historians observed that this campaigning resulted in some Australians perceived the referendum as the moment when Indigenous people received the right to vote/became citizens however they already possessed these rights

Question 9

what was the result/effect of the referendum?

Answer 9

The referendum was held on the 27th of May 1967 and achieved the highest ever support for any constitutional amendment in Australian history. The ‘yes’ vote won 90.77% of voters, ranging from a high of 94% in VIC to a low of just under 81% in WA but the Federal Government’s unwillingness to use its new powers led to disillusionment.
The 1967 referendum effectively allowed for future opportunities for greater Federal involvement in Indigenous affairs, particularly from 1972 onwards however it did not erase the significant disadvantage and the continued racism faced by First Nations people

Question 10

what was the FCAATSI’s role in the 1967 referendum?

Answer 10

Both the Coalition government and the Labor opposition supported the referendum but the government didn’t actively campaign for a ‘yes’ vote hence the FCAATSI along with student + church led groups primarily participated in campaigning and advocating for more support for the referendum

Question 11

what were the protests surrounding equal pay in the 60s?

Answer 11

The late 1960s saw women campaigning on several fronts to address inequalities they faced. One of the most prominent campaigns was around issues of equal pay
Australia’s award system (wage determinator), from the Harvester Judgement of 1907 onwards, was predicted on the male as the family breadwinner and additionally women in professions like teaching were often paid less than men in the same professions. industries that were female-dominated, were paid poorly compared to male-dominated professions

Question 12

what were some other concerns of women in the 1960s?

Answer 12

Access to childcare + maternity leave acted as additionally barrier which women who wanted to participate in the workforce faced

Question 13

what were the efforts of women to gain equal pay? (data/evidence)

Answer 13

In 1969 the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) mounted a test case for equal pay for meat workers at the Arbitration Commission. This Commission ruled in favour of equal pay for equal work (women doing the exact same roles as men) but this ruling ignored the fact that it would only apple to ⅕ of women in the workforce as most women worked in highly gendered industries hence they would not benefit from this ruling

Question 14

who play a prominent role in the fight for women to obtain equal pay?

Answer 14

Zelda D’Aprano who in protest to the commission chained herself to the doors of the Commonwealth building in Melbourne which gained extensive media coverage + publicity for the claims of women union activists for equal pay for work of equal value and the end to different award rates for men and women. D’Aprano and other women involved with the protest later formed the Women’s Action Committee to continue the fight.

Question 15

what were the concerns surrounding accessibility to abortions for women in the 60s? (+ evidence)

Answer 15

Access to abortions was a key issue for many women as state laws all criminalised abortion to varying extents. The Menhennitt ruling in Victoria in 1969 broadened the scope for lawful abortions on the grounds of an abortion being necessary for the physical or mental health of the mother.
SA went further in 1969 with laws that liberated abortion procedures within the 1st 24 weeks of pregnancy . Nevertheless, while abortions became easier to obtain, they were not fully decriminalised

Question 16

what was the CAUSE of the Tent Embassy?

Answer 16

The Yolngu’s battle against mining at Gove Peninsula shifted from their bark petition to te Federal court in 1968 in Milirrpum v Nabalco however in April 1971 Justice Richard Blackburn decided against the Yolngu’s claims ruling that there is no evidence of ndigenous Australians acting as the original custodians of Australia hence they do not recognise Indigenous land rights so the Yolngu later appealed to PM William McMahon to stop the mine but a Ministerial Committee deliberated and its decision that there would be no Aboriginal title to land was announced on Australia Day 1972. this rejection prompted 4 young Aboriginal activists from Redfurn in Sydney to drive to Canberra and pitch a beach umbrella in front of Parliament House with the sign ‘Aboriginal Embassy’, a commentary on their status as aliens in their own land

Question 17

Historians Haebich and Kinnane on the EFFECT of the rejection of the Yolngu people?

Answer 17

Historians Haebich and Kinnane observed that “land rights may have been the rallying point and reject of the Yolngu claim the catalyst but the central issue was Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islader self-determination

Question 18

what did the Tent Embassy involve?

Answer 18

initially it included 4 Aboriginal activists however it was quickly joined by others and by mid February there were 11 tents on the lawn of Parliament House. The Tent Embassy also drew visitors like Labor opposition leader Gough Whitlam and Dr H.C Coombs (white man), the chairman of the Council of Aboriginal Affairs, giving it credibility and increased public sympathy for the Embassy however the government dismantled the tents in July, sparking confrontations that were captured in the media, further destroying support for the Coalition’s management of the issue

Question 19

what were the demands of the Aboriginal Embassy Cabinet Committee?

Answer 19

demanded that they have Full State rights to the NT under Aboriginal ownership and control with all titles to minerals, etc., ownership of all other reserves and settlements throughout Australia with all titles to minerals and mining rights, preservation of all sacred lands not included in points 1 and 2, ownership of certain areas of certain cities with all titles to minerals and mining rights, as compensation, an initial payment of 6 billion dollars for all other land throughout Australia plus a percentage of the gross national income per annum.

Question 20

what was the EFFECT of the tent embassy on Australian politics?

Answer 20

the inept response to the Tent Embassy was a sign of a government that after 23 years in power had run out of steam and conversely gained attention to the energetic Labor leader, Gough Whitlam, who assumed control of Labor from Arthur Calwell in 1967 had nearly won the 1969 election

Question 21

what was Whitlam’s election like?

Answer 21

In 1972 Whitlam campaigned on the slogan ‘It’s time’ accompanied by a television advertising campaign and jingle. Whitlam was credited for expanding the support of the Labor party beyond the traditional working class base to the Australian middle class.

Question 22

what did Whitlam do?

Answer 22

Whitlam promised an end to conscription, complete the withdrawal of Australian soldiers from Vietnam, expand government services in health + education and act on women’s and Aboriginal + Torres Strait Islander rights. The ALP won government on the 2nd of December 1972. The newly-formed Women’s Electoral Lobby elevated women’s issues during the campaign and the ALP benefited from being more receptive to their concerns. The Whitlam government ended conscription on its 1st day in office. Stopped the luxury sales tax on the contraceptive pill, formally recognised Communist China and reopened the equal pay case. Whitlam appointed Elizabeth Evatt to the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission, the 1st woman appointed to the body responsible for determining award rates

Question 23

what did the Whitlam government do for the advancement on Indigenous rights?

Answer 23

the government moved quickly in Indigenous affairs, appointing the 1st minister solely responsible for this portfolio, Gordon Bryant, former president of the Victorian Aboriginal Advancement League (VAAL), FCAATSI member, and long-time advocate for First Nations rights in the Parliament. The National Aboriginal Consultative Committee was formed, the first advisory body of elected Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. In Feb 1973, the Aboriginal Land Rights Commision was formed under Justice Edwards Woodward, popularly known as the Woodward Royal Commision which examined not if but how land rights in the NT were to be implemented. It shaped the Commonwealth’s 1st land rights legislation the Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976

Question 24

what is the CAUSE/INFLUENCE of Aboriginal nationalism?

Answer 24

the end of the 60s saw a generation of Aboriginal activists emerge + change from coalitions like the FCAATSI. activists were inspired by Black Power movement in the US + individuals/organisations like the Black Panther Party. Other influences included decolonisation movements, Pan-Africanism and links with emerging militant activism in the North American First Nations movement, including organisations like the American Indian Movement (AIM)

Question 25

how did Historian Stuart Macintrye describe the tent embassy?

Answer 25

The Tent Embassy acted as 1 of the most visible expressions of this new militancy
Historian Stuart Macintrye referred to it as “the most spectacular display of black power in Australia.” The embassy brought emerging leaders like Paul Coe, Bobbi Sykes and Gary Foley to prominence

Question 26

Historian Richard Broome on the catalyst which prompted Australians to embrace black power?

Answer 26

Historian Richard Broome recounts how Bruce McGuiness’s invitation to Bermudan politician and Caribbean Black Power activist, Roosevelt Brown, to address the Victorian Aboriginal Advancement League in Melbourne in 1969 was a catalyst for Aboriginal activists taking over the League and embracing Black Power. While at the Congres of African Peoples in Atlanta US in September 1970, McGuiness worked with a New York lawyer to send 2 petitions to the UN: 1 on land rights and the other alleging genocide of Aboriginal people in AUS
The petition of 1970 then demanded the return of all reserve lands, all unoccupied Crown land and compensation of $A6 billion, anticipating the demands made by the Tent Embassy 18 months later

Question 27

what were the demands/issues for Indigenous people?

Answer 27

The struggle for land rights, a desire for self-determination and increased contact between Indigenous activists across Australia, fostered a sense of Aboriginal nationalism. The most visible symbol of this pan-Aboriginal identity was Harold Thomas’s Aboriginal flag, created in 1971 which flew at the Tent Embassy protests in 1972 and the media coverage of the event gained it wider exposure. Less public but equally important, expressions of self-determination included the creation of an Aboriginal legal service and an Aboriginal medical service in the inner-Sydney suburb of Redfern and later Melbourn + other places which became locations for Aboriginal activism at the time

Question 28

historian perspective on the demands for Aboriginal people?

Answer 28

Historian Russell McGregor stated that “Aboriginal nationalism was an anti-colonial nationalism, seeking a liberated future for the Aboriginal people along with an expansion of their rights and entitlements”

Question 29

what was the CAUSE of the Australian Women’s liberation movement?

Answer 29

this movement emerged in the late 60s and was encouraged by various overseas events like the protests staged at the 1968 Miss America pageant. the movement was also prompted by the frustrations of AUS women with with the make chauvinism of the New Left + the anti-war movement, leading them to question the social structures of society that oppressed women. Women shared personal experiences in consciousness-raising sessions to explore the impact on women of domestic violence, unequal division of child raising and housework in traditional marriages, lack of access to childcare and the objectification and sexualisation of women under the male gaze (the representation of women as an object only of male desire).

Question 30

what are the important motivators of the Australian women’s liberation movement?

Answer 30

the movement had the slogan “the personal is political” which is credited to Carol Hanisch. There were feminists like American writers like Gloria Steinem. However, the Australian movement produced key texts like Germaine Greer’s The Female Eunuch (1970) and Anne Summers’s Damned Whores and God’s Police (1975). The 1st International Women’s Day, officially recognised by the United Nations in 1975, saw a march and festival take place in Sydney, on Saturday 8 March 1975.

Question 31

what was the gay liberation movement?

Answer 31

adding to demands in AUS by Black Power + women’s liberation were militant demands for rights and changes to traditional social norms about gender/sexuality. similarly, overseas actions inspired local activists were also inspired to spark rebellions which would challenge these ideas. the riots against police persecution erupted at the Stonewall Inn, NYC, in 1969 (key moment in the gay liberation movement). in AUS, the Campaign Against Moral Persecution (CAMP) formed in Sydney in 1970, followed by similar organisations like Society Five in Melb (JAN 1971) actively promoted homesexual and lesbian rights.

Question 32

what the fight for land rights in AUS during the 60s like?

Answer 32

Australia, unlike other settler-colonial societies like Canada + NZ never recognised native title by a treaty with Indigenous peoples. the struggle for civil rights dominated until the late 1960s but concerns over land rights were never absent. as well as the Yirrkala Bark Petition, 1963 saw VAAL organiser protests about the proposed closing of the Lake Tyers reserve in eastern VIC. Doug Nicholls who led protests over the state government’s plans to close the reserve, relocate the Aboriginal residents into nearby towns + sell the land. protesters successfully delayed the proposal + in April 1970 the Victorian government went further and announced that 1600 hectares at Lake Tyers and 240 hectares at Framlingham would be ‘held under perpetual licence’ and administered by Aboriginal trusts
Both these places had been sites of reserves where First Nations peoples had been forced to live by the government during the late 19th and early 20th centuries
While not a recognition of native title, this was the 1st successful campaigns by an Aboriginal group for control over land
The push for land rights and self-determination led to many different perspectives but some opponents equated the Aboriginal Embassy with the Black Power movement, which some Aboriginal protesters identified with

Question 33

what was the battle for gender equality like (Women’s Electoral Lobby)?

Answer 33

Issues surrounding sexual freedom, equal pay and discrimination based on gender often went unacknowledged in Federal parliament dominated by men. Only a handful of women sat in the Senate and, until the 1980s, parliaments were often returned at elections that didn’t contain a single woman in the House of Representatives. Neither the 1969 nor the 1972 Federal elections saw a woman elected to the lower house. The desire for action on women’s issues created the Women’s Electoral Lobby (WEL) in April 1972
WEL was founded in Melbourne by Beatrice Faust who was inspired by an article by Gloria Steinem about women rating American political candidates. This idea quickly spread across AUS, the goal being to survey parliamentary candidates on women’s issues

Question 34

what was the TRANSFORMATIONS/progress on Indigenous land rights in the 60s to 70s?

Answer 34

in 1971, Judge Blackburn ruled against native title being part of Australian law but governments were changing in their view of land rights. in VIC, the state government passed the ‘Aboriginal Lands Act 1970’ to facilitate the creation of Aboriginal trusts at Lake Tyers and Framlingham. The Whitlam government created the Aboriginal Land Rights Commission (Woodward Royal Commission) in 1973 to explore how land rights could be achieved for Aboriginal people in the NT.

Question 35

what was Whitlam’s famous gesture to show the start of land rights in AUS?

Answer 35

The Commonwealth had direct control in the NT, enabling the Whitlam government to return a small portion of the land around Daguragu (Wattie Creek) to the Gurindji people on 16 August 1975. Prime Minister Whitlam famously poured some red soil through the hands of Vincent Lingiari to mark the occasion. However, the hand-back was a 30 year pastoral lease as the Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976 had yet to be passed. And certainly native title was not recognised elsewhere in Australian law. The Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976 was introduced to Parliament by the Whitlam government but passed almost unamended by the Fraser Liberal Coalition government a year later. It established an Aboriginal Land Commission to adjudicate on claims and, by 1981, ⅓ of the Northern Territory had been returned to Aboriginal hands. However, only Crown and reserve lands, not leased lands, could be claimed

Question 36

what were the TRANSFORMATIONS/reforms made on women’s rights?

Answer 36

the Whitlam government made important advances in women’s rights in AUS. Elizabeth Reid became the 1st Advisor on Women’s Affairs -> Whitlam additionally contributed to the Roman of the luxury tax on the contraceptive pill, extension of an equal minimum wage and the recognition of equal pay ‘for work of equal value’ helped bridge, not eliminate, the gap in wages between men and women; paid maternity leave was introduced for Commonwealth employees; and grants to non-profit childcare centres and the supporting mother’s benefit were introduced in 1973

Question 37

important legal reforms made for women?

Answer 37

there was the introduction of the Family Law Act 1975 to commence the principle of no-fault divorce + established the Family Court, allowing women to leave marriages without having to prove fault on the part of their husbands. these reforms gave greater support for women in both the home + workplace. Some reforms were made by women outside the government as Anne Summers and other members of the Sydney Women’s Liberation movement founded Elsie, the country’s first refuge for women fleeing domestic violence, in 1974.
They squatted in 2 vacant houses in Sydney’s inner-city and relied on donations to sustain the refuge, only securing government funding in 1975

Question 38

how did cultural norms surrounding the queer community for Australia’s legal system TRANSFORM in the 60s to 70s?

Answer 38

there was a push to challenge Australian laws + attitudes towards homosexuals/ lesbians emerged around 1970. in 1969, the Homosexual Law Reform Society was formed in Canberra to repel laws in every state and territory that criminalised homosexual sex. white its membership was drawn mainly from the heterosexual legal community it was one of the 1st organisations to advocate for the repeal of such laws. the campaign to reform Australia’s laws on homosexuality increased in 1972 after the police murder drowning of Adelaide academic, Dr George Duncan
This case raised awareness of the harassment of homosexuals by police, leading to South Australia becoming the 1st state to decriminalise homosexual acts in 1975.

Question 39

how did cultural norms surrounding the queer community TRANSFORM in the 60s to 70s?

Answer 39

The gay and women’s liberation movements signalled shifting social and cultural attitudes towards gender and sexuality. This cultural shift led to the collapse of the censorship system run by the Literary Censorship Board. The trigger was when Penguin Books published the sexually explicit novel ‘Portnoy’s Complaint’ by American Phillip Roth in 1970, in defiance of a government ban. The Whitlam government disbanded the censorship system in 1972. The birth control pill and youth culture promoted social attitudes towards sex that were more permissive than previous generations. However, as historian Frank Bongiorno observed an evaluation of the sexual revolution needs to be tempered with an acknowledgement that the changes occuring didn’t apply to all, and were shaped by class gender and race. Nonetheless, it provided an opportunity for unprecedented sexual and social freedom

Question 40

what were the TRANSFORMATIONS to Australian society in the 60s-70s?

Answer 40

The new Whitlam government championed Aboriginal peoples’ concerns and women’s rights and passed legislation to address these. The overwhelming support for a ‘yes vote’ in the 1967 referendum led to a new phase in the struggle for recognition, support for recognition, support for equity and land rights for First Nations people. The women’s liberation movement emerged, addressing social structures of society that oppressed women. The gay liberation movement emerged to campaign for the end of oppression

Question 41

what were the continuities for Australian society in the 60s-70s?

Answer 41

Australia’s relationship with the US strengthened through involvement in the Cold War (in particular the Vietnam War). Despite the ‘yes’ vote for the 1967 referendum, concerns about Indigenous civil rights were not addressed immediately. A new generation of Aboriginal activists emerged which altered the protest movement’s strategies and perceptions. Many concerns regarding women’s rights, such as the full legislation of abortion and equal pay for gendered industries, were not resolved and women remained significantly underrepresented in state and Federal parliaments

Question 42

Faith Bandler, Indigenous activist on the 1967 referendum

Answer 42

“A Yes vote on May 27 can open new doors for all the Australians who happen to be black…this improvement did not benefit the black Australians though it eased the guilty conscience of White Australians.”

Question 43

Zelda D’Aprano in a 1996 interview on the gender pay gap

Answer 43

“And here are all these men arguing about how much we’re worth and all men are going to make the decision…“the result of the case was very disappointing because, I think, there was about 6% of women already got equal pay for equal work in the plan, and I think only another 6% got it or so. So, all told, there was 12% of the women in the industry that got equal pay.”

Question 44

Eileen Capocchi, advocate for women’s right to access abortions

Answer 44

“We were also very active on the abortion issue and supported the right of women to choose whether to continue a pregnancy.”

Question 45

Justice Richard Blackburn in 1971 as he ruled against the Yolngu’s claims over land rights ti stop the mining at Gove Peninsula

Answer 45

“no doctrine of common law ever required or now requires a British government to recognise land rights under Aboriginal law which may have existed prior to the 1788 occupation; that Aboriginal land rights in Australia were never expressly recognised”

Question 46

what were the Aboriginal Embassy Cabinet Committee demands?

Answer 46

“We demand
* Full State rights to the Northern Territory under Aboriginal ownership and control with all titles to minerals, etc.
* Ownership of all other reserves and settlements throughout Australia with all titles to minerals and mining rights
* The preservation of all sacred lands not included in points 1 and 2
* Ownership of certain areas of certain cities with all titles to minerals and mining rights
* As compensation, an initial payment of 6 billion dollars for all other land throughout Australia plus a percentage of the gross national income per annum.”

Question 47

Historian Tobias Campbell on the Tent Embassy?

Answer 47

“the symbolic power of the Embassy resonated with Aboriginal experiences of dispossession, displacement and, perhaps less appreciated but no less important, spoke to a feeling that their existence was in juxtaposition with the cultural norms and formal institutions of twentieth-century Australia.”

Question 48

Historian Marilyn Lake on WEL

Answer 48

“WEL’s intervention in the political process was effective in reinstating women as an electoral force, a political bloc united in their demands, and the fact that WEL’s campaign in 1972 coincided with the first defeat of the Liberal party in 23 years made it appear even more powerful.”

Question 49

part of the land rights petition, which referred to the International Labor Conference, Convention 107, on the rights of ownership of Indigenous land by Indigenous people.

Answer 49

“The Crown has blatantly taken our land without treaty, without purchase, and without compensation of any kind.”

Question 50

Feminist activist Joyce Stevens in the 1st International Women’s Day March 1975

Answer 50

“what we look like is more important than what we do”

Question 51

Australian writer Anne Summers in ‘Damned Whores and God’s Police’

Answer 51

“While many men are hampered, restricted or exploited by their class or race, all derive some compensatory benefits from their sex. They have a freedom of movement that is denied to women.”

Question 52

Australian academic Dennis Altman in his novel ‘Homosexual: Oppression and liberation (1971)’

Answer 52

“Like other stigmatised groups, homosexuals do not enjoy equal protection of the law.”

Question 53

M. Sawer, Making Women Count: A history of the Women’s Electoral Lobby, UNSW Press, Sydney, 2008

Answer 53

“WEL did not just inherit favourable political opportunities; it helped create them.”

Question 54

The Tribune, the Communist party newspaper, commented (6th of FEB 1985)
(DATA)

Answer 54

“Fully 52% of the Territory is occupied by Europeans under pastoral leases, and this most productive land in the NT is unavailable for claim by Aborigines.”

Question 55

Historian John Rickard - on feminism

Answer 55

“Age at marriage and of childbearing began to rise. The Family Law Act of 1975 simplified divorce, abolishing the notion of guilt; both divorce and de facto relationships became more common.”