Chapter 8 Flashcards
Cognition
The way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing
Artificial intelligence
A scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people
Thinking
The process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively
Concepts
Mental categories that are used to group objects, events, and characteristics
Prototype model
A model emphasizing that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept, they compare the item with the most typical item(s) in that category and look for a “family resemblance” with that item’s properties
Problem solving
The mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available
Steps in the problem solving process
- Find and frame problems
- Develop good problem-solving strategies
- Evaluate solutions
- Rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time
Subgoals
Intermediate goals or intermediate problems devised to put the individual in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution
Algorithms
Strategies - including formulas, instructions, and the testing of all possible solutions - that guarantee a solution to the problem
Heuristics
Shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer
Fixation
Using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a new perspective
Functional fixedness
Failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing’s usual functions
Reasoning
The mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions
Inductive reasoning
Reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations
Deductive reasoning
Reasoning from a general case that is known to be true to a specific instance
Decision making
The mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them
Loss aversion
The tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses compared to acquiring gains
Confirmation bias
The tendency to search for and use information that supports one’s ideas rather than refutes them
Hindsight bias
The tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that one has accurately predicted an outcome
Availability heuristic
A prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events
Base rate neglect
The tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific and vivid information
Representativeness heuristic
The tendency to make judgments about group membership based on physical appearance or the match between a person and one’s stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information
Mindfulness
The state of being alert and mentally present for one’s everyday activities
Open-mindedness
The state of being receptive to other ways of looking at things
