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Chapter 7 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are social decisions based off

A

Our social cognition

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2
Q

What is social cognition

A

How we perceive, interpret, and understand social information about ourselves and others

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3
Q

What does our social cognition involve, and is based off

A

1- How we perceive others
2- How we interpret, analyse, remember and use information to judge people in social settings
3- How we explain (attribute) the behaviours of other people
4- How we mentally construct our world
5- How we from attitudes towwards people, including stereotypes that might lead to prejudice and discrimination

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4
Q

How does social cognition lead to cognitive bias

A

When our brain creates shortcuts to simplify the information coming in and make assumptions based on our prior experiences this can lead to cognitive bias

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5
Q

Cognitive bias

A

Errors in our judgement/thinking due to oversimplifying a complicated situation

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6
Q

What is person perception

A

The way we form impressions of others and make judgements about their characteristics, emotions and intentions based on observable cues and behaviours

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7
Q

What are person perceptions formed by

A

These impressions are formed by the schema we have

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8
Q

What is schema

A

- a concept or idea that helps us organise and interpret information

-including both abstract knowledge and specific examples about a person, group or situation

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9
Q

What are the factors that influence person perception

A

01- Physical cues
02- Body language
03- Saliency Detection
04- Social Categorisation

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10
Q

Person perception - 01- Physical Cues

A

- What a person looks like
- what they are wearing
- how they conduct themselves

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11
Q

What is Cognitive Bias - Physical Cues (Halo Effect) and what examples

A

A cognitive bias in which assume that because people have one good quality, all other qualities they possess must be good. Also vice versa

Percieved as kind may also be considered intelligent
Percieved as antisocial or rude might also be uninteligent

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12
Q

Person perception - 02- Body language

A

Refers to non-verbal communication is used to express a certain message

includes posture, eye movement, facial expressions ect

A persons body language enables quick and often accurate judgements to be made

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13
Q

Person perception - 03- Saliency Detection

A

We initially judge people on their salient characteristics as it is the most noticable thing about them in their environment

depends on context of situation e.g seeing a man in a suit wich isnt extraordinary but seeing a man in a suit with a red mohawk

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14
Q

What is salient characteristics

A

anything that is noticable in comparison to its surrondings

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15
Q

What is Attribution

A

The process by which people explain the causes of thier own and other peoples behaviours

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16
Q

How can Attributes explaining behaviours be grouped

A

2 categories
- personal (dispositional)
- situational

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17
Q

Internal (dispositional) Attribution

A

An explanation due to the characteristics of the person involved (e.g personality, ability, attitude, motivation, mood or effort)

These are internal factors that are sourced within the person

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18
Q

External (situational) Attribution

A

An explanation due to the factors external to the person involved (e.g actions of another person, some aspects of the environment, the task, luck and fate)

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19
Q

Attribution errors

A

Researches have identified 3 general biases that affect our attributes

1- Fundamental attribution error
2- Actor-observer bias
3- Self-serving bias

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20
Q

1- Attribution - Fundamental attribution error

A

The tendency to overestimate the influence of personal factors and underestimate the impact of situatioinal factors on other peoples behaviours

When we do this, we attribute a persons behaviour to internal rather than external factors

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21
Q

Why does Fundamental attribution occur?

A

1 explanation is that the persons behaviour tends to be more clearly visable and noticable (‘salient’) than the situation in which it is occuring

This is called saliency bias

It works like a figure-ground in visual perception- the person stands out in the foreground and the situation is barely noticeable in the background

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22
Q

Just world hypothosis

A

is the belief that the world is a just place in which people usually get what they deserve and deserve what they get

this allows us to better understand and feel safer in a world where we do not always have control over our circumstances and can be therefore exposed to cruel twists of fate

e.g bad things happen to bad people and good things happen to good people

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23
Q

2- Attribution - Actor-observer bias

A

our tendency to attribute our own behaviour to external or situational causes, yet attribute others behaviours to internal factors

e.g if you fail a test you may blame it on the test being overly difficult, but you might say your friend failed because they didnt study hard enough

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24
Q

3- Attribution - Self serving bias

A

When judging ourselves we tend to take the credit for our successes and attribute failures to situational factors

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25
Q

Attribution - Why does self serving bias occur?

A

1 explanation of this bias is that we are motivated by a desire to protect our self-esteem so we distance ourselves from failure

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26
Q

Attribution - Culture and Attribution

Individualist culture

A

being individual and independent = valued and encouraged

achieving personal goals is more important than achieving group goals

In these cultures, it is acceptable to place achievement of personal goals ahead of achieving group goals

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27
Q

Attribution - Culture and Attribution

Collectivist culture

A

achieving group goals is more important that the achievement of individual goals

Individuals are encouraged, and sometimes expected, to place group goals ahead of their personal goals

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28
Q

Attitudes

A

- a persons evaluation about:
- ourselves
- others
- objects
- experiences

- are judgements
- are learned through experiences
- can cause a person to respond in a positive or negative way

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29
Q

What are the Attitudes; Tri-component model componets

A

Attitudes have 3 components (ABC)
- Affective
- Behavioural
- Cognitive

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30
Q

Affective in Tri-component model

A

- Emotional reation or feelings

- Based on judgements which result in a positve, negative or neutral response

- The feeling component of an attitude

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31
Q

Behavioural in Tri-component model

A

- Way in which an attitude is expressed through out actions

- the doing component of an attitude

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32
Q

Cognitive in Tri-component model

A

- the beliefs we have

- it is linked to what we know and develop as a result of our experiences. Some are based on fact and others are false

- the thinking/knowledge component

33
Q

Example of Tri-compnent model

A

Affective
- you are scared of spiders
Behavioural
you avoid coming into contact with them by leaving a room if you know one is in there
Cognitive
- you know that spiders bite and can be harmful

34
Q

Limitations of the Tri-component theory

A

1- this model suggests that all components must be present before it can be said that an attitude exists

2- Some suggest that an attitude only has affective and cognitve components and that there is no behavioural component

3- A persons attitudes and behaviours are not always consistent

4- attitudes and observable behaviours can be unrelated

35
Q

Do psychologists support the Tri-component model

A

Most psychologists still support the Tri-component model of attitufes

But they accept that it is unrealistic to expect attitudes to always corresppond perfectly with behavuour

Behaviour is rarely the product of a single influence

36
Q

Social cognition - Stereotypes

A

Fixed collectioin of beliefs that we have about the people who belong to a certian group

regardless of individual differences among memebers of that group

37
Q

Social cognition - Stereotyping

A

The process of creating stereotypes and assigning them to people

Stereotypes can lead to stigma and/or prejudice

38
Q

Social cognition - Positives of stereotyping

A

- offer information that helps us interact with people we dont know well

- allow us to make decisions about others more quickly

39
Q

Social cognition - Negatives of stereotyping

A

- often include incorrect information that leads to overgeneralisations about members of a social group

- can lead to stigma

- can lead to prejudice

40
Q

Social cognition - Stigma

A

Negative attitudes against someone based on a distinguishing characteristic such as:

- Mental illness - Disability - Gender - Sexuality - Race - Religion - Culture -

41
Q

Social cognition - What is Ingroups

A

- any group you belong to or identify with

- your friendship groups - peer group - family - school - religion - sex - race - culture - AFL team you barrak for -

42
Q

Social cognition - What is Outgroups

A

- Any group you do not belong to or identify with

43
Q

What is cognitive dissonance

A

the feeling of discomfort that arises from an inconsistency in their tri-component model of attitude

44
Q

Avoiding cognitive dissonance

A

Cognitive dissonance cannot be avoided as a whole

our brain uses cognitve biases to misinform our thinking so that the outcome matches our expected outcome

45
Q

Cognitive Biases used to decrease cognitive dissonances

A

1- Actor-observer bias
2- Attentional bias
3- Confirmation bias
4- Self serving bias

46
Q

Cognitive dissonance - Actor-observer bias

A

this bias involves attributing ones own behaviour to situational factors while attributing others behaviours to internal factors

47
Q

Cognitive dissonance - Attentional bias

A

this bias involves paying attention to some things, yet ignoring others, therefore limiting our options

‘see no evil, do no evil’ mentality

47
Q

Cognitive dissonance - Confirmation bias

A

this bias involves the tendency to seek out the information that only supports your belief, and not anything that goes against your belief

‘Ignorance is bliss’ mentality

48
Q

Cognitive dissonance - Self-Serving bias

A

This bias involves attributing positive outcomes to internal factors (such as personal abilities or effort) and negative outcomes to external factors (such as situational influences)

49
Q

What are Heuristics

A

Heuristics are mental shortcuts that allow us to make quick decisions from limited information

They are a problem-solving stratergy that uses generalisations to reduce our cognitive load

They are subjective and based on past and personal experiences

50
Q

Heuristics - Cognitive load

A

The amount of information our working memory can hold at any given time

51
Q

Benefits of using Heuristics

A

1- Help with problem-solving
2- Speed up decisions making processes
3- Simplify complex and difficult questions
4- Reduce mental effort needed to make decisions
5- Increase creativity when problem-solving

52
Q

Types of Heuristics

A

- Availability
- Representative
- Affect

53
Q

Heuristics - Availability

A

- A mental shortcut that uses the first thoughts that come to a persons mind when they are evaluating an issue or deciding what to do

54
Q

Heuristics - Representative

A

- Occurs when we estimate the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a known situation. We compare it to a situation prototype or stereotype we already have in mind

55
Q

Heuristics - Affect

A

A mental shortcut that is basedn on a persons current emtional state

56
Q

Heuristics - Availability positives and negatives

A

positives- saves time and effort in terms of recalling similar situations and analysing them

negatives- it tends to overestimate the likelihood of recent events reoccuring

57
Q

Heuristics - Representativeness positives and negatives

A

positive- it allows us to understand a new object or event by comparing its characteristics to those we have already established for other objects and events

negatices- we often overestimate the similarity between the two things we are comparing, leading to mistakes in our decision-making

58
Q

Heuristics- Affect positives and negatives

A

positive- it might encourage us to take bigger risks than we usually would if we are in a positive mood

negatives- if we are in a negative mood, then the heuristic tends to keep us there because we wont risk doing new things, which limits our ability to learn from new and challenging situations

59
Q

Prejudice

A

pre judjement. It is a negative attitude towards the members of a group, soley based on their membership of that group

60
Q

4 basic characteristics of prejudice

A

1- they tend to believe that they (majority) are superior than the minority
2- The majority group believes that the minority is different and they do not belong
3- The majority tends to believe that they are more powerful and important
4- A majority group that displays prejudice is insecure and fearful that the minority will overpower

61
Q

examples of prejudice

A

- Sexism discrimination based on gender
- Racism discrimination based on race
- Ageism discrimination based on age

62
Q

Types of prejudice

A

1- old fashioned -> open rejection of minority, blatant with their views
2- Modern -> subtle, hidden. Might hide their thoughts
3- Implicit -> Unconsciously held prejudices, sometimes beyond their control
Explicit -> coniously held, deliberately thought about

63
Q

**

Discrimination

A

- Refers to positive or negative behaviour that is directed towards a social group and its members

- un equal treatment of members of society who should have the same rights as others

64
Q

Types of discrimination

A

Direct- when a person treats, or proposes to treat, someone unfavourable based on personal characteristics

Indirect- When treating everyone equal disadvantages certain indivviduals because of personal characteristics e.g head covering in work

Intersectional- occurs when someone belongs to two or more groups that are discriminated against

65
Q

prejudice vs discrimination

A

prejudics = thoughts

discrimination = action

66
Q

Effects of discrimination

A

- elevated blood pressure
- a weakend immune system
- higher rates of smoking
- alchohol use
- drug use

67
Q

Relationship between stereotypes and stigma, prejudice and discrimination

A

stereotyping and stigma can lead to prejudice, which in turn can result in discrimination

68
Q

Stereotypes, stigma, prejudice and discrimination in the ABC model

A

Affective (prejudice) - feelings that are either friendly or hostile towards a group of people

Behavioural (discrimination) - behaviour towards a group of people

Cognitive (stereotypes and stigma) - the categorisation of a group of people as ‘the same’

69
Q

Methods to reduce prejudice

A

1- Law, Anti-discrimination laws have led to a reduction of observable expressions of prejudice

2- Campaigns, Educational campaigns about social problems associated with prejudice education the majority and give a voice to minority

3- Research, Research studies also find new, effective ways of reducing prejudice as society changes

70
Q

Contact Hypothesis

A

(Gordon Allport)
- social contract between groups is sufficient to reduce inter-group prejudice
- there must be:
mutual interdependence
**Equality between groups
A common goal
**Support from authorities, laws or norms

71
Q

Intergroup contact

A

- Increased intergroup contact reduces prejudiced groups
- Increasing direct contact between two prejudiced groups
- Needs to be under specific conditions to be effective:
Ongoing contact
**Works best when we rely on each other for something and both have equal status

72
Q

Sustained Contact

A

- For intergroup contact to be effective, it must occur over a sustained period of time
- one encounter will be ineffective - might have negative effects
- Outgroup interaction over a long period allows individual characteristics to override stereotypes

73
Q

Superordinate goals

A

- goals that cannot be achieve by any one group alone
- it overrides any existing goals that each group may individually have
- Common throughout the world - example is the USA and Russia in WW2

74
Q

Mutual Interdependence

A

- If two prejudicedd groups depend on each other for something, there is a greater likelihood that negative stereotypes are broken down and prejudiced is reduced

75
Q

Equality - Equal status

A

- The groups must have equal status when in contact
- If one is percieved as ‘better’, they become the ‘more important’ grouo and equality is gone
- when both groups percieve themselves as being important as eachother, they have equality of status
- when it is unequal, the group members view each other different, and treat eachother differently

76
Q

Cognitive interventions

A

- Involves changing the way in which something thinks about prejudice
e.g perspective or have their negative prejudices challenged and broken down
- If people can understand others basted on their individual characterisitcs rather than stereotypes, it will reduce prejudice. Be an empath!

77
Q

Changing social norms

A

- Through education
- Through legislation
- Through media influences
- Through politics

psych 1/2 (11 decks)

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