Chapter 6 -- Learning Flashcards
What is behaviourism?
A systematic method or approach to understanding changes in behaviour
- focuses solely on observable behaviours
- discounts the importance of mental activity such as thinking, wishing, and hoping.
What is non-associative learning?
A learned change in behaviour to a novel stimulus after repeated or continuous exposure to that stimulus.
What are the 3 types of non-associative learning?
- Habituation: Ignoring unnecessary, repeated low-intensity stimuli for our own well-being. (Ex: annoying clocks ticking, skin touching clothes)
- Sensitization: Increase in responses to repeated high-intensity stimuli. (Alarm clocks, sounds in your home after a horror movie)
- Imprinting: animals form a close and dependent bond with the first animal they see after being born and copy their mannerisms.
What is associative learning?
Learning that occurs when an organism makes a connection, or an association, between two stimuli or events.
What are the two types of conditioning associated with associative learning?
Classical conditioning: organisms learn the association between 2 stimuli and that makes up their knowledge.
Operant conditioning: organisms learn the association between behaviour and consequence.
What is observational learning?
Learning that occurs through observing and imitating another’s behaviour.
What is learning defined as?
a systematic, relatively permanent change in behaviour that results from cognitive experience.
What is an unconditional stimulus and a conditioned stimulus?
unconditioned stimulus (US): produces a response without prior learning. (FOOD)
conditioned stimulus (CS): previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus. (BUZZER)
What is an unconditioned response and a conditioned response?
unconditioned response (UR): unlearned reaction that is evoked by the unconditioned stimulus. (DOG SALIVATES WHEN IT SEES FOOD)
conditioned response (CR): learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after conditioned stimulus–unconditioned stimulus pairing. (DOG SALIVATES WHEN IT HEARS BUZZER)
What is acquisition?
The initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus when these two stimuli are paired. Happens due to contiguity and contingency.
How do contiguity and contingency work?
contiguity: CS and US are presented close together in time.
contingency: CS must indicate that the US is on its way.
What is generalization in classical conditioning and why is it not always beneficial?
The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to evoke a response that is similar to the conditioned response.
- Cat responds to a harmless minnow and applies this same response when in the presence of a dangerous piranha.
How does discrimination work against the flaws of generalizations?
Individuals learn to respond to certain stimuli and not others.
What is extinction in classical conditioning?
The weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent.
- Pavlov stopped giving his dogs food when the buzzer sounded and they stopped salivating
What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?
An extinguished conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning.
What is renewal?
The recovery of the conditioned response when the organism is placed in a novel context.
- Drug addicts may not crave drugs in the recovery facility, but experience them when they return to their homes.
How does classical conditioning explain fears in terms of John B. Watson’s Little Albert experiment?
Bad experiences create schemas and cause fears
- Rat turned into CS
- Loud noise was US and his reaction to it (as a baby) was the UR
- Pairing of rat (neutral/CS) and loud noise (US)
- Albert became afraid of the rat (CR)
What is counterconditioning?
A classical conditioning procedure that involves the conditioning of an undesired response to a stimulus into a desired response.
What is aversive conditioning?
A form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus.
How are the immune and endocrine systems affected by classical conditioning?
Immunosuppresion occurs: decrease in bodies production of antibodies
What is taste aversion?
A learned association between taste and nausea.
What is negative reinforcement?
Removing an unwanted stimulus in order to encourage good behaviour.
What is positive reinforcement?
The introduction of a desirable stimulus after a behaviour
What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect?
Behaviours followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviours followed by negative outcomes are weakened.
How does contingency work in operant conditioning?
Consequences to behaviours must happen consistently, and any disruptions may interfere with previous training.
What is shaping?
Rewarding successive approximations of a desired behaviour.
What are the 3 assumptions of learning theories applied to animals and humans?
– Responses are learned rather than innate
– Learning is adaptive
– Our experiments can uncover the laws of learning.
What is forward, simultaneous, and backward conditioning?
Forward: CS precedes US (best method)
Simultaneous: CS and US go together
Backward: CS goes after US (worst method)
What is avoidance learning?
A response to negative reinforcement where an organism can altogether avoid a negative stimulus by making a particular response even if the stimulus isn’t present.
- putting earplugs in before entering an environment where loud noises might occur
What is learned helplessness?
An organism’s learning through experience with negative stimuli that it has no control over negative outcomes.
- Why people in abusive relationships fail to see an opportunity to leave
What is a primary reinforcer?
A reinforcer that is innately satisfying; a primary reinforcer does not require any learning on the organism’s part to make it pleasurable.
- Water when thirsty
What is a secondary reinforcer?
A learned or conditioned reinforcer.
- Receiving money from your paycheque helps you obtain primary reinforcers.
What is generalization in operant conditioning?
Performing a reinforced behaviour in a different situation.
- Pigeons reinforced for pecking a disk, when presented multiple coloured disks, pigeons picked the ones closest to the original colour.
What is discrimination in operant conditioning?
Responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behaviour will or will not be reinforced.
- Only presenting your student ID when “Student Discount” signs are shown.
What is extinction in operant conditioning?
Decreases in the frequency of a behaviour when the behavior is no longer reinforced/rewarded.
- Can be resistant when partial reinforcement conditioning occurs.
What is a fixed ratio reinforcement schedule?
what is its response pattern, and how does it resist against extinction?
- Reinforcement after a set number of responses
- EXAMPLE: Every time you get a good grade you get to choose a game to play.
- High rate of response followed by a pause in the behaviour after the reinforcer is given
- Higher ratios lead to more resistance to extinction
What is a variable ratio reinforcement schedule?
what is its response pattern, and how does it resist against extinction?
- Reinforcement after a variable number of responses
- EXAMPLE: Being randomly rewarded with a prize wheel
- Steady rate of responses
- More resistance to extinction.
What is a fixed interval reinforcement schedule?
what is its response pattern, and how does it resist against extinction?
- Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time.
- EXAMPLE: Receiving allowance every Friday if I clean my room, cleaning it on Thursdays and letting mess accumulate because I only clean it on Thursdays to get Friday’s allowance.
- Pause will occur after receiving the reinforcer (cleaning the room), then the behaviour will be engaged in at a higher rate as time nears for the next reinforcement (Thursday to Friday).
- Longer intervals lead to more resistance to extinction.
What is a variable interval reinforcement schedule?
what is its response pattern, and how does it resist against extinction?
- Reinforcement after a variable amount of time
- EXAMPLE: My mom would check my math workbook a few times a week and offer praise if I was on track.
- Moderate and steady rate of response to the behaviour.
- More resistance to extinction than fixed interval schedules.
What is positive punishment
The presentation of a stimulus after a behaviour in order to decrease the frequency of that behaviour.
- My parking ticket
What is negative punishment?
Removing a stimulus after a behaviour in order to decrease the frequency of that behaviour.
- Losing my driving privileges because I hit the curb.
What are the difficulties in punishment?
- Learners may not understand which behaviour is being punished.
- Learners may come to fear teachers rather than the punishment associated with the action.
- Aggression leads to future aggression
What is the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behaviour?
Applied behaviour analysis
Behaviour modification
What is preparedness?
The species-specific biological tendency to learn in certain ways but not others.
– Snakes (CS) lead to electric shock (US) that evokes fear (CR)
– Flowers (CS) lead to electric shock (US) are weaker when evoking fear (CR)
- Snakes are naturally fear-evoking
What are the four main processes involved in observational learning?
Attention: noticing behaviour
Retention: info goes to memory
Motor Reproduction: copying behaviour
Reinforcement: consequences
What is latent learning?
Unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behaviour.
EXAMPLE: Exploring campus for better routes to better prepare me for my walk to class.
What is insight learning?
A form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem’s solution.
- Kohler’s experiment: Sultan the chimp saw the boxes to help him reach the high bananas.
What is vicarious learning?
Learning from anecdotal evidence/others’ experiences.
How has Tolman’s work made it i today’s psychology’s interest in goal setting?
– Classical and operant conditioning give individuals expectancies
– Behaviour occurs when there is an ideal reinforcer waiting.
What is the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behaviour that interferes with learning?
Instinctive drift
What are the 4 important variables involved in the human stress response?
Predictability (stress with warning is less stressful than without it).
Perceived Control (over stimuli)
Perceptions of Improvement (seeing a stressful situation get better)
Outlets for Frustration
