Chapter 6- Learning Flashcards
What is learning?
Learning is the process that allows for enduring changes in both the brain and behavior as a result of prior experience
What is nonassociative learning? What types of learning does it support?
Nonassociative learning involves an increased or decreased response to a repeated stimulus; including habituation and sensitization
What is associative learning? What types of learning does it support?
Associative learning involves making connections between stimuli and the behavioral responses to them; includes operant and classical conditioning
What happens during habituation?
During habituation an organism’s reflexive response to a repeated stimulus becomes weaker
What happens during sensitization?
During sensitization, an organism’s reflexive response to a repeated stimulus becomes stronger
What is dishabituation?
Dishabituation is the recovery of a response that has undergone habituation, typically as a result of the presentation of novel stimuli
What is the Dual-process theory of nonassociative learning?
It suggests that habituation and sensitization are both always at work
What is operant conditioning in terms of associative learning?
An active form of associative learning and is related to changes in voluntary behaviors
What is classical conditioning in terms of associative learning?
A passive form of associative learning where an involuntary response to a stimulus, that is, a reflex becomes associated with a new stimulus
What is an unconditioned stimulus (US)?
A stimulus that lead to an automatic response
What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?
A stimulus that can eventually trigger a conditioned response
What is a conditioned response (CR)?
An automatic response established by training to an ordinarily neutral stimulus
What is an unconditioned response (UR)?
An automatic response to a stimulus
What are the five fundamental processes that underlie learning?
Acquisition, generalization, discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery
What is acquisition?
Acquisition is the initial learning of the US-CS link in classical conditioning
What is generalization?
Generalization is the tendency to response to stimuli that are similar to the CS so that learning is not tied too narrowly to specific stimuli
What is discrimination?
Discrimination occurs when we learn to respond to a particular stimulus but no to similar stimuli, thus preventing overgeneralizations
What is extinction?
Extinction is an active learning process whereby the CR is weakened in response to the CS in the absence of the US because the CS in no longer associated with the US
What is spontaneous recovery?
Spontaneous recovery is observed when an extinct behavior reappears after a delay
What is contiguity? What is contingency?
Contiguity is the closeness in time, while contingency is the predictiveness
What is blocking?
Blocking occurs as a result of associations being made only to valuable and informative events; novel stimuli presented in compound with an existing CS will not be learned
What is a prediction error?
The mismatch between a prior expectation and reality
What is counterconditioning?
Counterconditioning is the procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that had triggered unwanted behaviors
What part of the brain is important for forms of emotional learning?
Amygdala
What is preparedness?
The species-specific biological predisposition to learn some associations more quickly than others
What is conditioned taste aversion?
A biological tendency in which an organism learns to avoid a food if eating is followed by illness
What is operant conditioning?
Operant conditioning is a mechanism by which out behavior operates on the environment, acting as an instrument or tool for us to change it
What is an antecedent in terms of the ABC model?
Antecedents are the stimuli that precede the behavior and signal the consequence
What is a behavior in terms of the ABC model?
Behavior is the way the person responds to the antecedent
What is a consequence in terms of the ABC model?
The consequences are the stimuli after the behavior that either increase or decrease the likelihood of the behavior occurring in the future
What is the law of effect?
States that behavior is a function of its consequences; actions followed by good outcomes are strengthened, and behaviors that are followed by bad outcomes are weakened
What is reinforcement?
Reinforcement refers to an increased likelihood of a behavior being repeated
What is punishment?
Punishment refers to the decreased likelihood of a behavior being repeated
What is a primary reinforcer?
Primary reinforcers tend to satisfy some biological need and are effective regardless of a person’s prior experience; include food, a drink when thirst, warmth when cold, or even sex
What is a secondary reinforcer?
Secondary reinforcers are learned, acquiring value through experience because of their association with primary reinforcers
What is positive reinforcement?
the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by a reinforcing stimulus
What is negative reinforcement?
Negative reinforcement increases the probability of a behavior by avoiding or removing an outcome
What is positive punishment?
Positive punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior as it is followed by an unwanted stimulus
What is negative punishment?
Negative punishment decreased the likelihood of behavior as it is followed by the taking away of a stimulus
What type of feedback is most important for children 8-9 when learning?
Positive feedback, reinforcement
What is the Premack principle
According to the Premack principle, activities someone frequently engages in can be harnessed and used to reinforce activities that the person is less inclined to do
What are free operant responses?
Refers to an operant behavior that has a schedule of reinforcement
What is shaping?
Shaping gradually changes random behaviors into a desired target behavior by what is called the reinforcement of successive approximations
What is instinctive drift?
Instinctive drift occurs when an animal reverts to evolutionarily derived behaviors instead of demonstrating the newly learned responses
What is a continuous reinforcement schedule?
Where behavior is rewarded every time it is performed
What is a partial reinforcement schedule?
Where behavior is rewarded only some of the time
What is a partial reinforcement schedule?
Where behavior is rewarded only some of the time
What is a fixed-ratio schedule?
Requires a specific number of behaviors before a reward is give
What is a variable-ratio schedule?
Reinforces an average number of behaviors
What is a fixed-interval schedule?
Reinforcement is given after a fixed amount of time
What is variable-interval schedule?
Where a response is reinforced based on an average amount of time elapsed
What is superstitious conditioning?
Behavior that results from accidental reinforcement of an action so that the organism continues to repeat it
What is latent learning?
Latent learning is the subconscious retention of information without reinforcement or motivation
What are cognitive maps?
Cognitive maps represent a complex spatial layout
What is insight learning?
Immediate and clear learning or understanding that takes place without overt trial-and-error testing
What is observational learning?
Learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates a behavior from a model
What is imitation?
Imitation is the purposeful copying of a behavior
What are mirror neurons?
Mirror neurons respond both when we act and when we observe the same actions
What is social learning theory?
Social learning involves four main processes: attention, retention, motor reproduction, reinforcement
What is the difference between observational learning and operant learning (conditioning)
Observational learning differs from operant learning as learning takes place by being observed without performing the action and learning to associate reward or punishment with a certain action
What is cultural transmission?
Cultural transmission is the transfer of information from one generation to another that is maintained not by genetics but by teaching and learning
What is vertical transmission?
Vertical transmission of culture occurs when skills are transferred from parent to offspring
What is horizontal transmission?
Horizontal transmission of culture is social learning between peers
What is a diffusion chain?
A diffusion chain is where individuals learn behavior by observing a model and then serve as models from which other individuals can learn
What is neurogenesis?
Neurogenesis is the process by which new neurons are formed in the brain
Where does neurogenesis occur?
Neurogenesis occurs in the hippocampus and an area lining the brain’s ventricles
How does meditation and cardiovascular activity affect the brain?
Meditation increases the size of the insular cortex and in areas associated with attention; exercise also enhances and maintains the brain’s capacity for learning
What is dual inheritance theory?
Dual inheritance theory posits that human cultural evolution was likely to be a dominant force driving our species’ genetic evolution over the last few hundred thousand years
