Chapter 2- Research Methods Flashcards
In Latane and Darley’s experiment, how often did subjects actually help the woman?
Around 40% of the time
What is overconfidence?
Can be thought of as intellectual arrogance where we think we know more than we really do
What is Conformation Bias?
confirmation bias is people’s tendency to place great importance on evidence that supports their pre-existing belief, while downplaying evidence that does not
Factors that increase conformation bias?
Firstly, by seeking out only evidence that confirms our beliefs while avoiding evidence that contradicts them; secondly, by only hearing one view we become more convinced that we are correct and downplay evidence contradicting this belief
What is Critical Thinking?
Critical thinking is the ability to systematically and objectively evaluate information using well supported evidence
3 traits of the scientific attitude?
To be curious, skeptical, and to have humility-to be humble by admitting when we’re wrong
What is the scientific method?
The scientific method is an orderly systematic process for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge
What is a theory?
A theory is a proposed explanation of some phenomena or a proposed explanation of why some phenomenon is occurring
What is a hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a specific testable prediction based on a more general theory
What is the theory-data cycle?
Starts by developing a theory, which leads to the developing of a specific hypothesis, then gather the relevant data, cycle repeats
What are operational definitions?
Are precise non-ambiguous descriptions of the variables in our study, and precise explanations of how we measured them
Why is it important to “operationalize” our variables?
It helps ensure that we are clear and consistent in our collection of data throughout our study; is also vital in helping other researchers replicate our study
What is a manipulated variable?
A manipulated variabale is on where a researcher controls the variable by assigning subjects to different levels of that variable
What is a measured variable?
With a measured variable, you are measuring to see if there was an effect of manipulating our manipulated variable
What is peer review?
Peer review is a quality control process used by publications to help ensure that only high quality, methodologically sound information is presented in the publication
What do peer reviewers look for?
Originality, importance of the work to the readers, and scientific reliability
Why is it desirable to have our studies replicated?
If another researcher can still find the same or similar results that we did, then this makes us more confident that our original study was a good one
What is a population of interest?
An entire large group that we are interested in finding something out about
What is a sample?
A much smaller sub-group of the population that we actually collect data from
What is a representative sample?
A sample that is statistically similar to the population of interest
What is random sampling?
Random sampling is where everyone in the population of interest has an equal chance of being included in the study
What is stratified sampling?
Stratified sampling is where we select our sample so that particular sub-groups in the population are represented proportionately
What is volunteer bias?
This is where the researcher ends up with a biased non-representative sample because people with certain qualities were much more likely to volunteer for the study than the general population was
What is a case study?
A case study is a research method where the psychologist studies a single individual’s history and behavior in great depth
Advantages of case studies?
We can get a lot more detailed information than we can get from any other research method; the information gathered from a case study can often suggest future more general studies looking at larger groups of subjects
Disadvantages/Limitations of case studies?
Since your only looking at one individual, there’s no guarantee that the data you collect will relate at all to the general population; the memories of subjects and their friends and families may be faulty; can’t tell us why anything is occurring
Advantages of surveys?
Unlike a case study, since your collecting information from a large number of people, you are very likely to get information that does reflect the attitudes, behaviors, and opinions of the large population of interest
Advantages of surveys?
Unlike a case study, since your collecting information from a large number of people, you are very likely to get information that does reflect the attitudes, behaviors, and opinions of the large population of interest
What is the limitation to surveys?
Socially desirable responding, aka faking good; this occurs because people will sometimes be hesitant to reveal honest personal information that might make them look bad or might answer questions in ways that make them look better than they actually are
What is naturalistic observation?
This is where we observe and record the behavior of organisms in their natural environment
Advantages of naturalistic observation
The behaviors being observed are guaranteed to be authentic, the data collected through naturalistic observation is also a source of ideas for new theories, it is the only way that certain behaviors can be studied ethically
Disadvantages/limitations of naturalistic observation
Since the subjects can’t know they’re being observed, the researcher has no control over the setting, can only look at observable behavior
What do researchers look for in correlational studies?
They look for relationships between variables.
What is a correlation?
A correlation refers to the extent to which two factors vary together
When are two variables correlated?
Two variables are correlated when they vary together in some kind of systematic ways
Is there a relationship between the variables of a child’s age and height?
Yes, there is a relationship between a child’s age and their height
If so, what is the nature of that relationship? (child’s age and height)
Lower values of age are associated with lower levels of height, and higher values of age are associated with higher levels of height
What is a positive correlation?
A positive correlation exists when one variable decreases as the other variable decreases, or one variable increases while the other increases
What is a negative correlation?
A negative correlation is a relationship between two variables such that as the value of one variable increases, the other decreases
What is correlation strength?
The degree to which variables can predict each other
Do correlations tell us about cause and effect?
Correlations don’t tell us about cause and effect relationships
Does this mean that battering causes children to respond aggressively to others’ distress? (correlation and causation)
No, there might be other explanations
Does this mean that eating ice cream causes shark attacks? (correlation and causation)
No, the other factor is time of year
What is the directionality problem?
If two variables are varying together, we can’t say with certainty whether the first variable is causing the change in the second variable, or the second variable is causing change to the first
What is the third variable problem?
The idea is that when we find that two variables are correlated, it’s possible that neither variable is actually causing a change in the other
What is an experimental group?
The group with the manipulation; the group that will use mental imagery
What is a control group?
baseline group we will compare data with; our comparison group, no manipulation applied
What is random assignment?
A subjects assignment to a particular group is random
What is an independent variable?
An independent variable is the variable that the researcher manipulates (memory technique)
What is a dependent variable?
A dependent variable is the variable that is measured (words recalled)
What is a dependent variable?
A dependent variable is the variable that is measured (words recalled)
What are confounds?
Confounds are the variables other than the independent variable that can unintentionally account for our results
What is the placebo effect?
The placebo effect is where people’s symptoms improve because of the belief the treatment will help
What is a placebo?
A placebo is a bogus or fake treatment that has the appearance of being genuine and that the patient believes will help them
What is a blind study?
A blind study is where the subject doesn’t know what, if any, treatment their receiving
What is a double-blind study?
A double-blind study is where neither the subject nor the researcher knows whether the subject is in the experimental or control group
What is validity?
Validity refers to the degree to which we’re measuring what we’re intending to measure
What is construct validity?
Construct validity refers to whether or not our operational definitions really reflect the variable we’re trying to measure
So does this operational definition have construct validity? (do movie start always die in three)
this would lack construct validity because their are other criteria we use to determine who is a movie star
What is external validity?
External validity refers to the degree to which we can legitimately generalize the findings of our study to the general population of interest
Would our subjects be representative of our population of interest? (survey about workout habits we only give to our friends)
Almost certainly not
Would this study have external validity? (survey about workout habits we only give to our friends)
Would lack external validity
Will someones ability to drive this simulator really reflect how well they drive an actual real-world car?
Probably not
Would this study have external validity? (about driving vehicle simulators)
No, lacks external validity
What is internal validity?
Refers to the degree to which any effects we found in an experiment are really due to our independent variable and not to confounds
Would this study have internal validity? (visual imagery technique vs not visual imagery technique group, compare groups from people in the morning vs people in the afternoon)
Our study lacks validity as there is a confound
What is the Institutional Review Board (IRB)?
An ethics review committee that looks over research designs to be sure there is nothing harmful being done to our subjects and that any potential harm is outweighed by the potential benefits of the research; if not research method is adjusted
What is informed consent?
Informed consent is where the experimenter provides a full description of the research including the purpose of the study and the nature of the methods involved and the subject is given the choice to participate or not
What kinds of things are subjects informed of?
Alcohol, sugar, penicillin, and so on, the subjects are informed and various questions are asked regarding their susceptibility to harm with the substances or methods involved; also they can end their participation whenever
What does being debriefed mean?
Where the purpose of the study is explained, any manipulations of the study are explained
What does being debriefed mean?
Where the purpose of the study is explained, any manipulations of the study are explained
Animals can only be harmed if?
1: the benefit of the research justifies the harm; and 2: no other alternative method of conducting the research
Three guiding principles for the use of animals in research?
Replacement, refinement, and reduction. In replacement researchers should find alternatives to using animals in their research whenever possible; refinement is where the researchers should modify experimental procedures to minimize or eliminate animal distress; and reduction is where the researcher should use research designs that require the fewest animals possible
What is and what do the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) do?
They require researchers to write proposals for their study that justify the use of animals and explain how they will be treated; also inspect research labs involving animals every six months to ensure the ethical treatment and care of the animals
