chapter 6: interacting and the work of play Flashcards
parenting styles: authoritarian parenting
parents show high levels of control and low levels of warmth
parenting styles: authoritative parenting
parents provide a balance of warmth and structure and are responsive to their children
parenting styles: indulgent-permissive parenting
parents are warm and caring but exert little control over their kids
parenting styles: indifferent-uninvolved parenting
neither warm nor controlling. they try to spend little time with their kids
which of the 4 parenting styles work best
most of the time its authoritative parenting that works best
-kids with these parents usually have higher grades, are more responsive and self reliant, and are friendlier
the result of authoritarian parenting
kids are usually: unhappy, have low self esteem, and are overly agressive
the result of permissive parenting
kids are usually: impulsive and have little self control
result of uninvolved parenting
these kids: do poorly in school, and are usually agressive
variations in parenting styles across cultures
- european north americans value raising kids that are happy and self-reliant
- asians place less value on individualism, and more on cooperation and collaboration
- latino culture emphasizes strong family ties and respecting the roles of family members, especially adults
variations in parenting that are related to lower SES
- parents are less educated
- usually are employed in a position where they have to take lots of orders from people
- are often raise their kids in places with higher crime rates
- they tend to be more authoritarian
parental behaviour: direct instruction
this is telling the kid how, when and why certain behaviours are important (this can help thekids understand peoples feelings, develop self control, and internalize values)
parental behaviour: modelling (and counterimitation)
occurs when kids learn appropriate behaviour by watching their parents engage in that behaviour
counterimitation: learning what should NOT be done by observing the behaviour (like when a sibling gets punished for doing something they wont be likely to do that)
parental behaviour: rienforcement and punishment
reinforcement: any action that increases the likelihood the action that it follows
punishment; any action that increases the likelihood of the action that it follows
parental behaviour: negative reinforcement trap
unwittingly reinforcing a behaviour you want to discourage
ways in which punishment can have negative consequences
- it may stop an undesired behaviour, but doesnt necessarily teach desired behaviours
- can make kids feel anxious, fearful, and resentful
what is physical punishment associated with? (6)
- increased agression
- mental health probs
- poor parent-child relationship
- delinquent and antisocial behaviour
- delayed cognitive development
- increased incidence of child abuse
3 ways that parental conflict affects the kids
- the kid may feel like the family is not stable or secure, which may make them feel anxious, fearful, or sad
- the ineffetive styles of interacting with the other parent may start to spill over into the relationship with the child
- the more time the parents spend fighting, the less they spend effectively parenting
stresses the child has about the parents
- if the parent becomes unemployed, or may become unemployed
- if parents are really stressed out and withdraw from the family, or become less accepting of the children
what are 2 charictaristics of the child that influence parental behaviour
- age
2. temperment and baheviour
child’s influence on parental behaviour: age
- the way that the parents show warmth and control changes
- the parents grant more autonomy, but also expect more responsible behaviour
child’s influence on parental behaviour: temperament and behaviour
-it is best if the parents and children have the same temperament and behaviour (if they are different less time is spent together, and the parent may see it as not wanting to spend time with them, rather than just not liking the activity_
child maltreatment: physical abuse
this is the likely or actual use of physical force to cause suffering or injury
child maltreatment: sexual abuse
this is: fondling exposure rape exploitation using sexually explicit language showing a kid porn involving a kid in porn
child maltreatment: emotional maltreatment
involves: ridicule rejection humiliation degradation
child maltreatment: neglect
failure to provide for the childs healthy development, or secure their physical safety
social and cultural factors that increase the risk of abuse
poverty
social isolation
acceptance of physical punishment
parent factors that increase the risk of abuse
- if parents were maltreated as children
- if parents have an unrealistic expectation of children’s behaviour
- if parents have poor interactions with each other
child factors that increase the risk of abuse
- age: infants and toddlers are less able to regulate aversive behaviours
- health: if the kid is sick a lot
- relationship: stepkid, rather than actual kid
children who have suffered abuse may:
- permanent physical damage
- poor relationships with peers
- be agressive
- poor self control
- lower grades
- disruptive in class
- depressed
- abuse people when they are adults
best way to prevent abuse (and what parents must do to do that)
decrease the use of physical punishment
-parents must: learn about the risks, understand typical behaviour development in kids, learn how to best resolve conflict with kids)
eriksons stages of psychosocial development: initiative vs guilt
- in this stage kids take more initiative and do more for themselves, guilt occurs when kids realize that their initiatives may place them in conflict with others
- the purpose of this stage is to apperently find the balance b\w individual initiative and the willingness to cooperate with others
differences between the complex emotions of toddlers and preschool age children
the complex emotions are the same but they come from different sources
- shame comes from failng to defend a classmate
- fear comes from “monsters”, and worries about school and health
regulating emotions in early childhood
- they realize that sometimes they should conceal their emotions
- they see the consequences and causes of certain emotions
- they can regulate their own emotions and rely less on their parents for that
- they use mental strategies to regulate emotions
- they use the right strategies in the right setting (whether the situation can be controlled or not)
what happens when children have difficulty regulating their emotions
- they have more conflict with peers
- there is more difficulty resolving conflicts with peers
- there is less adaptive adjustment to school
what are young childrens self concepts based on
- physical charictaristics
- preferences
- competencies
- possessions
what is the theory of mind
ideas about connections between thoughts, beliefs, intentions, and behaviour
wellman and the theory of mind
he suggested that there are 3 phases of development of the theory of mind in preschool years
- 2yrs: aware of desires and links those to behaviours
- 3yrs: can distinguish mental from physical world, uses mental verbs (forget, think, ect), still focuses mostly on desires
- 4yrs: knows that actions are based on beliefs, which may or may not be accurate
what are the 2 basic theories about what causes advances in the theory of mind?
- language: they learn words such as “think”, “know” and “believe” that let them describe a situation where someone has a false belief
- social interaction: this gives children the insight into different mental states
the theory of mind and autism
kids with autism usually fail at false belief tasks
- some people say its because there is a lack of theory of mind
- some kids focus on only one facet of the othere persons behaviour and ignore other facets
preschool play compared to infant play
kids in preschool now engage in much less parallel play and more cooperative play
-they shift from having to use realistic things when they play make believe to using more abstract ones
make-believe and cultural values
- kids have different roles depending on what is valued in their culture and what they usually see adults doing
- the level of assertiveness and politeness also varies depending on the culture
what kind of stuff does playing make believe benefit
- language skills
- memory
- reasoning
- understanding of other peoples thoughts beliefs and feelings
what are imaginary companions associated with in make-believe
they are associated with more real life sociability than kids with no imaginary companions
what is included in solitary play
colouring
- solving puzzles
- building
- reading
when is solitary play a concern
when it involves wandering aimlessly or hovering around people that are playing but not joining in
do kids like to play with others of different gender
- no, not really, and they get upset if you make them, even when the activity is gender neutral
- by 2-3 children begin to self segregate
- by 10-11 most kids are playing with the same gender
what does maccoby say about why kids want to play with their own gender
he says that girls and boys play differently
-he says that girls have difficulty influencing boys
altruistic behaviour in preschool children
they gradually increase understanding of other peoples needs
- they learn appropriate altruistic responses
- they start to learn to see things from another persons point of view (empathy)
situational influences of altruistic behaviour
- feelings of responsibility
- feelings of competence
- mood
- costs of helping
altruism and heredity
- it is an evolutionary adaption since helping others increases the chances of us being helped
- genes have some impact
- the influence of heredity is more indirect (if the kid is shy they may not be able to help, or if they cant regulate their emotions they may be to upset by the others distress that they cant help)
how can parents influence altruistic behaviour
- model what they want
- disciplinary practices
- opportunities to behave prosocially
what are the 2 general dimensions of parenting?
warmth and responsiveness
control
(usually best to be hight on warmth and use an average amount of control)
social role:
set of cultural guidelines about how one should behave, especially with other people (many are associated with gender)
GENDER stereotypes
beliefs and images about males and females, these are not necessarily true
learning gender stereotypes at age: 18m, 2yr, 4yr, and school age
18m: look longer at pictures of toys meant for their own gender
2yr: have some knowledge of gender stereotyping of adult activities
4yr: now there is a more extensive knowledge of gender stereotypes
school age: they know what “male” and “female” jobs tend to look liek
actual differences in genders
- men are larger and stronger
- boys are more active
- females have better verbal capabilities
- males are slightly better at math
- males have higher spatial ability
- girls are easily influenced by adults
- girls are better with emotions
- men are more physically agressive
- females have more relational agression (undermine others’ socail relationships)
how are gender stereotypes influenced by parents
- kids hold traditional gender views if their parents do
- parents are more accepting of gender typical behaviour
- mothers typically go along with gender-related comments made by their kids
- father are more likely to actively encourage gender typed play
the influence peers have on gender stereotypes
- peers “reward” others for gender typical behaviour with social acceptance
- they “punish” kids that dont with ridicule
- they teach “appropriate” gender behaviour by example
what is gender identity
whatever gender you identify with
kohlberg’s 3 steps to fully understanding your gender as a child
- gender labeling: whatever the kid understands that they are, and calling themselves that by age 2-3
- gender stability: understanding that boys become men and girls become women, this is understood at preschool age
- gender constancy: understanding that gender doesnt change over situations or personal wishes, understood at about 4-7
when does kohlberg say that we learn about gender roles
after the three stages
gender-schema theory:
the idea that kids want to learn more about an object, activity or behaviour after first deciding whether it is masculine or feminine
biological influences on gender stereotypes
- may have something to do with having historically different roles (child rearing for women, and providing food and protection for men)
- can have somethig to do with hormones
