Chapter 6: Cognitive Development Throughout the Lifespan Flashcards
1
Q
Thinking is defined as the _____ of mental representations.
A
manipulation
2
Q
_____ includes the mental activities involved in the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of knowledge.
A
Cognition
3
Q
The most rapid cognitive development takes place during the first few years of life when the brain is _____.
A
growing rapidly
4
Q
Cognitive development is best described as a _____ process.
A
life long
5
Q
A ______ is a label that represents a class or group of objects, people, or events that share common characteristics or qualities.
A
concept
6
Q
We organize our thinking by using concepts, and concepts allow us to thing about something new by relating it to a ____ we already know.
A
concept
7
Q
Some concepts are well defined, and each member of the concept has all of the defining properties; no ______ does…such as registered voters.
A
nonmembers
you either are registered to vote or note
8
Q
Some concepts don’t have defined featured but have at least some of the same characteristics such as ______, whcih range from chickens to sparrows.
A
birds
9
Q
______ are objects or events that best represent a concept. A sparrow or robin would be considered a ______ bird by many individuals. New concepts are easier to learn if they are organized around a _____.
A
prototypes
prototypical
prototype
10
Q
Elements of cognitive development include: 3
A
concepts
reasoning
problem solving
11
Q
____ involves processing info to reach a conclusion.
A
reasoning
12
Q
Reasoning includes evaluating and generating ____ to reach a conclusion.
A
arguments
13
Q
Inductive reasoning involves reasoning from the specific to the _____.
A
general
i.e. drawing conclusions about all members of a category or concept based on only some members is inductive reasoning
14
Q
Deductive reasoning is reasoning from the general to the _____.
A
specific.
15
Q
Making a prediction based on a theory involves ______ reasoning.
A
deductive
16
Q
______reasoning involves using mental procedures that yield valid conclusions.
A
logical
17
Q
Problem solving is the mental activity used when we want to reach a certain goal that is not ______.
A
readily available
18
Q
_______ includes understanding the problem; planning a solution; carrying out the solution; and evaluating the results.
A
problem solving
19
Q
Problem representation or the way you think about a problem can make it easier or harder to _____.
A
solve
20
Q
We can represent problems visually, ______, with symbols, or concretely with objects.
A
verbally
21
Q
Piaget believed cognitive development proceeded through _____ stages.
A
four
22
Q
Piaget cognitive development stages
A
sensorimotor intelligence
preoperations stage
concrete operations
formal operations
23
Q
Piaget’ cognitive development stage from birth to approximately 18 months of age.
A
sensorimotor intelligence stage
24
Q
Piaget’ cognitive development stage from 2 to 7 years of age.
A
preoperations stage
25
Piaget' cognitive development stage from 7 - 12 years of age.
concrete operations
26
Piaget' cognitive development stage from 12 years on.
formal operations
27
Children's thinking become more _____ as they progress through the stages with the end result being the capacity to think logically and to problem solve using abstract ______.
logical
| concepts
28
Through a process Piaget called ______, children construct cognitive schema to organize their experiences.
adaptation
29
________ involves the complementary processes of assimilation and accommodation.
Adaptation
30
According to Piaget, the order in which children pass through the 4 stages of cognitive development dont vary but the ___ at which children pass through them can vary child to child.
rate
31
Piaget argued that each stage of cognitive development represents a ______ different way of thinking. Children in each stage think differently from children in other stages, because the way they think changes.
qualitatively
32
Vygotsky disagreed with _______explanation of cognitive development.
Piaget's
33
______ believed that children interact not only with objects in their environment but with people in a sociocultural context.
Vygotsky
34
______ is Vygotsky's term for how older adults transmit the values and beliefs of the culture to children.
Guided participation
35
Vygotsky used the term ______ to describe children's problem solving ability with and without the aid of an older guide.
zone of proximal development
36
In the zone of proximal development, Vygotsky believed that working alone, a child performs at the ____ level of his or her zone, but working with a teacher or parent, a child can perform at the ______.
lower level
| upper level
37
Vygotsky observed that teachers and parents will adjust the amount of _____ they provide as the child shows more sophisticated problem solving behaviors.
scaffolding
38
______ believed that language also played a role in thinking.
Vygotsky
39
Social speech, speech that involves talking with other people, leads to ____, talking aloud to oneself, which eventually becomes ______.
private speech
| inner speech
40
Three and four year olds often talk aloud which engaged in an activity which is an example of _____.
private speech
41
Often children increase the use of ______ speech when they are stuck on a problem or with a task.
inner speech
42
A relatively new and popular approach to studying ______ comes from the information processing approach.
cognition
43
In the information processing approach theorists use a _____ as a metaphor for the human mind, which is viewed as an information processing machine.
computer
44
Studying how the mind ____ info has led to new understanding about cognitive processes.
processes
45
_____ has received a great deal of attention by info processing theorists.
memory
46
Memory is information storage and involves the processes of registration, _____, storage, and retrieval.
encoding
47
______ theorists study cognitive development by examining changes to these and other processes that occur with age. They tend to argue that development is more _____
information processing
| continuous than discontinuous
48
Changes that occur with age frequently are describes as _____ or speed improvements but not the emergence of qualitatively new processes.
capacity
49
The memory systems include: 3
```
sensory memory
working memory (primary or short term memory)
long term memory (secondary memory)
```
50
Information that comes into a sensory pereceptual system, registers automatically in ______ memory.
sensory
51
The sensory register holds info for a very brief period of time, up to _____.
only a few seconds
52
Information that is not transferred from sensory memory to ______ memory is lost. The process that causes this transfer is attention
working
53
______ is a cognitive resource, cognitive energy if you will, that captures sensory perceptual info for further processing.
Attenion
54
Attention to info in sensory memory moves that info to _______.
working memory
55
Info can be held in working memory for slightly longer time periods compared to sensory memory or retained even longer through the process of _________.
rehearsal
56
An example of rehearsal is repeating the telephone number of a pizzeria to yourself while you walk to the ____. If rehearsal stops, the info will be lost after ____ seconds unless it is further processed to be stored in ______.
telephone
| long term memory
57
Working or short term memory is also limited in the amount of info it can hold _____.
at one time
58
The average adult can hold between ___ to ____ bits of info in short term memory.
5 - 9
59
______ proposed the magical number seven, plus or minus two, as the capacity of short term memory.
George Miller
60
The _____ of short term memory can be increased by using larger chunks of info or by what Miller referred to as chunking.
capacity
61
_____ involves organizing or grouping separate bits of info into larger units or chunks.
chunking
62
An example of ______ is when 5 8 1 2 7 8 6 3 is remembered as 58 12 78 63. This transforms eight bits of information into four, thereby freeing up space in short term memory.
chunking
63
Short term memory is also called ____ memory because a great deal of info processing takes place in that system.
working
64
Where does conscious thinking take place?
short term aka working memory
65
In order for info to be stored (transferred) into long term memory, it must be _____.
encoded.
66
The better the encoding done in short term memory, the better the chance the info can be retrieved from _____.
long term memory
67
Long term memory is the system that holds info for an _____ period of time.
extended
68
Some info processing theorists suggest long term memories are ____ and what we call forgetting is a failure of ______ not loss of memory. However, there is a great deal of disagreement and several competing theories of forgetting.
permanent
| retrieval
69
Unlike short term memory, long term memory appears to have ______ storage capacity.
unlimited
70
Long term memory is very _____ system.
organized
71
Research has suggested that new memories are fit into a network of ______, organized knowledge.
pre-existing
72
What we think of as remembering is the process of locating and ______ info from long term storage.
retrieving
73
Retrieval can be either ___ or _____.
recall or recognition
74
_____ is remembering when the cue for retrieval is the info to be remembered.
recognition
75
Selecting the correct response to a multiple choice question is an example of ______.
recognition
76
_____, a much more difficult retrieval process, involves remembering after being given a less helpful cue.
recall
77
Answering teh question, "what did you eat for breakfast?" is an example of the ____ process.
recall
78
According to Piaget's theory, newborns are equipped with ___ perceptual systems that enable them to interact with the environment.
sensory
79
Young infants explore their environment by sucking on objects, holding and manipulating them, and visually tracking them. Out of this sensorimotor activity, infants construct ______.
sensorimotor schema.
80
A _____ is an organized pattern of action or though.
scheme
81
An example of a ____ is the grasping scheme in which an infant must coordinate a sequence of actions to succesfully grasp an object.
sensorimotor scheme
82
During Piaget's sensorimotor stage a child constructs ____ shema and improve their ability to engage in coordinated action. A child in this stage develops skills in _______ when the problem involves sensorimotor activities or goals.
motor
| problem solving
83
During the ______ stage another achievement is object permanence.
sensorimotor
84
_______ can be tested by taking a toy and hiding it under a blanket in full view of the child then observing their reactions. Infants 4-8 months act as if an object is ____ there. Between 8-12 months of age a child will ___- under the blanket.
Object permanence
not there
search
85
Object permanence is not fully grasped according to Piaget until the _____ of the first stage, sensorimotor stage.
end.
86
The final achievements of the sensorimotor stage are _____ which is the ability to use one thing to stand for another, and deferred imitation.
symbolic representation
87
______ is illustrated in the pretend play of children. Children can and will use a broom for a horse.
symbolic representation
88
______ is modeling someone else's behavior some time after observing the model.
Deferred imitation
89
When a child engages in pretend play and shows deferred imitation, he or she has shifted into the second stage of ______.
preoperations
90
Piaget gave this stage the name peoperations because even though a child in this stage is capable of using mental schema (operations), these schema are not _____
logical
91
The preoperations stage describes the way that children in preschool and kindergarten go about _______.
problem solving
92
The _______ child lacks the logical concepts of conservation, classification, seriation, and class inclusion which develops in the next stage.
preoperational
93
______ is the understanding that the quantity of liquid, or number, or volume does not change unless you add or take some away.
conservation
94
Preoperational thinkers are fooled by the ____ change in how liquid looks and believe the quantity has changed when its in a small beaker and then a big beaker.
perceptual
95
_____ is the ability to rank order objects on a dimension like height or length.
seriation
96
_____ is the ability to organize items into groups based on shared characteristics or features.
classification
97
_______ is the ability to represent exemplars of categories in superordinate and subordinate levels.
class inclusion
98
_____ have difficulty keeping levels of a hierachically organized system in mind at the same time.
toddlers
99
Children in the _____ stage engage in egocentric thinking.
preoperational
100
Egocentric thinking are unable to take the _______ of another person.
perspective
101
Piaget first demonstrated egocentrism with his ______.
3 mountain task
102
_______ stage children do not reason logically about cause and effect, which is called transductive reasoning.
preoperational
103
Preoperational children engage in _____ thinking and project human abilities and traits onto inanimate objects.
animistic
104
Preoperational children's thinking lacks ____, that is the ability to mentally rewind a though.
reversibility
105
_____ operations and formal operations, describe cognitive development during the times that most students are in school.
concrete
106
The third stage, ____, is the beginning of operational thinking and describes the thinking of children between the ages of 7-11. learners at this age begin to decenter.
concrete operations
107
During concrete operations children can take into consideration _____ other then their own. Can perform transformations, meaning that they can understand reversibility, inversion, reciprocity, and conversion. They can make inferences about reality and engage in _____ reasoning.
viewpoints
| inductive
108
_____ operations is the last stage of cognitive development and opens wide the higher-ordered, critical thinking.
formal
109
Formal operations describes the way of thinking for learners between the ages of _____ and constitutes the ultimate stage of cognitive development.
11-15
110
According to Piaget, not all people reach what stage?
Formal operations
111
The end goal of cognitive development for Piaget is ______ reasoning about abstract concepts.
hypothetico-deductive reasoning
112
Elkind pointed out that there is anew form of egocentrism that emerges in adolescence which he called adolescent _______.
egocentrism.
113
Adolescent egocentrism takes two forms, imaginary audience and _______.
personal fable
114
Imaginary audience comes from the belief that other people are _____ on what you think is important. I.e. your pimple.
focused
115
_____ is believing that what you feel and experience is unique.
Personal fable
| i.e. the adolescent believes that no one else has ever been as sad, as happy, as in love
116
Labouvie-Vief suggests that there is an additional form of thought after adolescence called ______.
post formal operations
117
Labouvie-Vief's idea of post formal operations is a way of thinking that is characterized by the understanding that there is often more than one _____ to a problem.
right answer
118
To the relavistic thinker, truth is understood as ______ to the knower and problems are understood to have more than one possible solution.
relative
119
An ____ thinker thinks linearly and expects that there is one truth and that every problem has one correct solution.
absolute
120
Another capacity we tend to associate with adulthood and aging is _____.
wisdom
121
_______ is defined as insight into the practical problems of life.
wisdom
122
While we assume wisdom comes with age, research has shown that not all older adults are wise and that wisdom comes more from the ______ and richness of lived experience than from chronological age.
quality
123
Over the course of development, children use more and more sophisticated methods to _____, and their memory performance improves as a result.
remember
124
Although young infants (3 months or younger) demonstrate memory capability when they recognize and remember familiar people, smells, objects, etc., but the use of intentional strategies for remembering have not been documented until the age of _____.
two
125
The early strategies for remembering include looking, pointing, and ____.
naming
126
By early elementary school, children are using ____ as a method for remembering.
rehearsal
127
_____ is a generic term for a variety of memory strategies that involve repetition as a method of remembering (i.e. repeating the phone number over and over until you dial, writing your spelling words ten times).
rehearsal
128
While 3 and 4 year olds will rarely use the strategy of rehearsal, 10% of 5 year olds, ____% of 7 year old and nealry ____% of 10 year olds will.
50% of 7 year olds
| 85% of 10 year olds
129
Organization, or ______, strategies develop by 7-9 years of age and involve the semantic grouping of materials into meaningful units (i.e. by grouping words by their prefix)
clustering
130
______ strategies involve creating verbal or visual connections that add meaning to material and do not develop until adolescence or later.
elaborative
i.e. creating the phrase "Every good boy does fine" to remember that e,g,b,d, and f are the lines of the treble clef in music.
131
______ or the executive function is the capacity to be aware of one's own cognitive processing.
metacognition
132
_____ is one's knowledge about memory, and it has been divided into person (everything we know about the memory abilities of ourselves and others), task (everything we know about memory tasks), and strategy (everything we know about techniques of learning and remembering) factors.
Metamemory
133
As with strategy use, metamemory improves with _____ during childhood.
age
134
At first, young children are unrealistic and make overly optimistic predictions about their memories (i.e. they can remember everything) and with age they become more realistic in their expectations. They also know more about possible _____ for remembering with age.
strategies
135
Older children have a greater memory ____, coming closer to the adult capacity of 7 plus or minus 2 items.
capacity
136
Older children are more aware of effective memory strategies and are more likely to use ______ and elaboration over rehearsal.
organization
137
Older children also have more metamemory _____. These improvements continue through adolescence.
awareness
138
Researchers studying memory processing in adulthood describe a general decline in ______ and in speed of processing.
cognitive capacity
139
It is also possible that older adults do not perform as well on _____ tests as younger adults because of anxiety about their performance, _____ factors, or because of the non meaningful info that participants are typically asked to remember in a memory experiment.
memory
| motivational
140
Older adults are able to compensate for changes in memory ability because of their increasing knowledge base, and _______ knowledge for important tasks.
specialized
141
Sieglar has studied problem solving in children using what he has called a ______ approach. He observed problem solving in participants aged 3-20 years to determine what aspects of the problem they focused on and what ______ they developed based on that info to solve the problem.
rule assessment
| rule
142
Sieglar observed that most _____ will just guess at a solution.
3 year olds
143
Sieglar observed that 4 -5 year olds will select information they deem to be _____ and form a rule using that info. the issue with their problem solving is that they fail to take all ______ information into account when forming the rule.
important
| important
144
By age ____, children are sophisticated in determining all of the info relevant to the problem and then forming a rule to apply in solving it.
12
145
_____ adults often perform best on problem solving tasks in domains in which they have a great deal of knowledge and experience. They solve problems more efficiently in their area of expertise than outside their expertise.
older
146
Older adults also outperform younger subjects on problem solving tasks that involve _____ problems.
everyday
147
This build up of domain specific knowledge and experience in solving everyday problems compensates for the slowing down of _____ processing that has been found in older adults.
cognitive
148
______ is the process of focusing on particular aspects of the sensory world.
attention
149
Infants attention is captured by stimuli more they they are capable of controlling and directing their ______.
attention
150
An infant's looking is attracted by a novel stimulus rather than _____ directed toward that stimulus.
intentionally
151
As a child develops, attention changes to become more selective and attention span ______.
lengthens
152
________ is directing one's attention toward a particular aspect of the sensory field while at the same time ignoring other distracting stimuli.
selective attention
153
Selective attention research has shown that the ability to guide one's attention begins around the age of ___.
two
154
During the school years, selective attention continues to improve, but children still have ____ ignoring distracting stimuli.
difficulty
155
______ are much better at selective attention tasks and do very well on tasks that require divided attention, which is systematically switching attention between 2 on going tasks.
Adolescents
156
Older adults perform more _____ than younger adults on selective attention and divided attention tasks. The more distracters during the task, the ____ older adults perform.
poorly
| worse
157
The ability to ignore irrelevant stimulus appears to decline with ____.
age
158
Visual search experiments examine how participants search complex arrays for pre-identified targets by recording _______ during this search.
eye movements
159
Older children's searches are more systematic than _____ children.
younger
160
The eye movements of younger children appear to be ____ directed at different parts of the stimulus array.
randomly
161
Between ages ____ and ____, visual search of a stimulus becomes more controlled and systematic.
4-10
162
Adolescents continue to ____ visual search tasks.
improve
163
Older adults are ____ on visual search tasks than younger adults and because of their declining ability to ignore irrelevant stimuli, they do worse as the number of distracters in the array ______ or the similarity between the distracters and the target increases.
slower
| increase
164
Older adults benefit from training on visual search tasks, so this decline does not appear to be _____.
irreversible
165
Some researchers report that on familiar and on less complex search tasks, older adults perform just as well as _____ adults.
yonger
166
Attention spans increase from ______ in 2 -3 year olds to more than an hour in six year olds.
18 minutes
167
Learning to read requires these attentional capacities and is probably the most significant attention perceptual ______ for children.
challenge
168
Throughout adolescense and adulthood attention span _____.
lengthens
169
The time from 2 - 5 years has been named the ____ years.
play
170
Play serves a variety of function in children's ______.
development.
171
Play, reflects, as well as stimulates, _____ development, and it helps children develop social interaction skills.
cognitive
172
The child engages in several major categories of play: sensorimotor (or functional) play, ____, parallel play, associative play, or _____ play.
pretend play
| cooperative play
173
The type of play children are engaged in depends on the existence and degree of interaction among _____.
the players
174
____ play is engaged in during infancy and involves the manipulation of objects.
sensorimotor play
175
Sensorimotor or functional play provides the child with pleasurable stimulation but also serves a cognitive purpose as described by ____.
piaget
176
_____ play also consists of motor activities such as crawling, walking, running, or waving.
sensorimotor or functional
| i.e. older infants or toddlers pushing a toy car back and forth for no reason
177
_____ or imaginative play involves games of make believe. According to Piaget this type of play requires the cognitive ability of ______.
pretend
| symbolic representation
178
______ is a major form of imaginative play. However, it involves no physical activity as compared to the other types of play. It's pure imaginative play.
daydreaming
179
____ play begins shortly after infancy in which children play side by side but do not interact. They might use the same play materials but any sharing is unintentional.
parallel play
180
_____ and _____ year olds gradually engage in more associative play than parallel play.
4-5
181
_____ play is when children playing near each other interact and may intentionally share tools or toys during play, but their play does not have a common goal.
associative
182
Between the ages of two and five, children begin to act out fantasies, pretending that they are ____. When children find that they share knowledge of various characters or fantasies, they engage in ____ play as they act out fantasies together.
various characters
| cooperative
183
Any type of play that involves interaction and cooperation among the players is called _____.
cooperative
184
One special type of cooperative play is called ______ play. This type requires that the child's imagination and perception be highly active and alert quick to pick up cues from the other players. It's comparable to the improvisation of professional actors.
sociodramatic
185
Through ______ play, the child learns how to behave in society. In addition, the groundwork is laid for interpersonal relationship.s
sociodramatic
186
In addition to teaching the child how to interact socially, play is also an influencing factor in ______.
cognition
187
Sutton-Smith considered play an activity in which the infant can work through new responses and ____ and increase his or her range of responses.
operations
188
Sutton-Smith called play a mechanism for the "______"
socialization of novelty
189
Sutton-Smith believed children who play is varied are given a chance to experience situations that increase their ability to respond _______ to novel situations that may arise in the future.
appropriately
190
Children whose play is ______ are less able to respond in unfamiliar situations. Thus, play enlarges a child's repertoire of responses and thereby allows him or her to adjust quickly to new situations.
restricted
191
There are cultural and ____ influences on cognitive development.
environment
192
There are many factors, that cause intellectual disability in children that stem from prenatal and childhood _____.
environments
193
Although the domains of development (biological, cognitive, psychosocial, are discussed separately, they in fact interact ______.
throughout life
194
Poor nutrition or poor ______, can have a negative impact on cognitive development.
social relationships
195
Early childhood education programs can ______ influence cognitive development.
positively
196
The key factors of early childhood education programs that promote cognitive growth are having a staff that feels qualified to create an appropriate curriculum and to respond to the _____ needs of children, taking a holisitc approach when designing the curriculum so activities in different domains like music and ____ are integrated and having parents involved in the program.
educational
| reading
197
The ____ environment cna have an affect on cognitive development.
family
198
Caldwell and Bradley have developed the ______ scale to assess the amount of intellectual stimulation int he home environment.
HOME
| Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment
199
HOME measures things such as the amount of appropriate play materials, ______ with children, and the amount of intellectual stimulation (i.e. number of books in the home).
parental involvement
200
Studies have shown that scores on the HOME scale positively correlate with later measures of _____.
intelligence
201
Adopted children show gains in IQ scores when they move from an impoverished household to a _______ one.
stimulating
202
Children who live in households with high HOME scores tend to show gains in ______ between the ages of 1 and 3 years old, while the opposite is true of children from households with low HOME scores. These patterns hold for European American and ____ households but not Mexican American households. More research is needed.
IQ scores
| African American
203
Developmental psychologists have investigated whether the pattern of cognitive development described by Piaget Piaget is _____, found in all children.
universal
204
_____ pioneered the study of cultural influences on cognitive development to test this universality.
Michael Cole
205
Michael Cole's study of the development of thinking in children from non-Western cultures showed children in those cultures took longer to achieve _____ and were unable to achieve formal operations. The explanation for this difference is that the achievement of these stages correlates with formal schooling. Cultures that define intelligence as logical, hypothetico-deductive thought design schooling to foster the development of this type of ____.
concrete operations
| reasoning
206
Culture influences _____ development.
cogntive
