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Chapter 6 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the general formula?

A

An algebraic formula that can describe any member of a family of compounds e.g. CnH2n+1

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2
Q

What is the empirical formula?

A

The simplest whole number ratio of atoms

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3
Q

What is the molecular formula?

A

The actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule

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4
Q

What is the structural formula?

A

Shows the arrangement of atoms carbon by carbon e.g. CH3CH2CH2OH

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5
Q

What is the skeletal formula?

A

Shows the bonds of carbon skeletal only. The hydrogen and carbon atoms aren’t shown

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6
Q

What does the displayed formula show?

A

How the atoms are arranged

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7
Q

What is nomenculture?

A

The naming of compounds

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8
Q

When there are 6 carbon atoms, what is the stem name?

A

Hex-

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9
Q

When there are 7 carbon atoms, what is the stem name?

A

Hept-

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10
Q

When there are 8 carbon atoms, what is the stem name?

A

Oct-

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11
Q

When there are 9 carbon atoms, what is the stem name?

A

Non-

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12
Q

When there are 10 carbon atoms, what is the stem name?

A

Dec-

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13
Q

If there’s more than one identical side-chain or functional group, what should you use?

A

Di-(2) Tri-(3) Tetra-(4)

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14
Q

What is a homologous series?

A

A bunch of organic compounds that have the same functional group and general formula

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15
Q

What is the suffix of alkanes?

A

-ane

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16
Q

What is the prefix of branched alkanes?

A

-alkyl

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17
Q

What is the suffix of alkene?

A

-ene

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18
Q

What is the prefix of halogenoalkanes?

A

Chloro/bromo/iodo -

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19
Q

What is the suffix of alcohols?

A

-ol

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20
Q

What is the suffix of aldehydes?

A

-al

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21
Q

What is the suffix of ketones?

A

-one

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22
Q

What is the prefix and suffix of cyclohexanes?

A

Cyclo- …. -ane

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23
Q

What is the suffix of carboxyclic acids?

A

-oic acids

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24
Q

What is an addition reaction?

A

Joining 2 or more molecules together to form a larger molecule

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25
Q

What is a polymerisation reaction?

A

Joining together lots of simple molecules to form a giant molecule

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26
Q

What is an elimination reaction?

A

When a small group of atoms breaks away from a larger molecule

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27
Q

What is a substitution reaction?

A

When one species is replaced by another

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28
Q

What is a hydrolysis reaction?

A

Splitting a molecule into 2 new molecules by adding H+ and OH- derived from water

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29
Q

What is an oxidation reaction?

A

A reaction in which species lose electrons

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30
Q

What is a reduction reaction?

A

A reaction in which a species gains electrons

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31
Q

What do curly arrows show?

A

How electron pairs move around

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32
Q

What are nucleophiles?

A

Electron pair donors, often negatively charged ions

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33
Q

As nucleophiles are electrons rich, what are they attracted to?

A

Areas that are electron poor, e.g. positive ions

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34
Q

What are electrophiles?

A

Electron pair acceptors, often positively charged ions

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35
Q

As electrophiles are electron poor, what are they attracted to?

A

Places that are electron rich, they like to react with negative ions, atoms with lone pairs

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36
Q

What do radicals have?

A

An unpaired electron

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37
Q

Why are radicals very reactive?

A

Because they have unpaired electrons, and radicals will react with anything, positive, negative or neutral

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38
Q

When are 2 molecules isomers?

A

If they have the same molecular formula but the atoms are arranged differently

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39
Q

What are the 2 main types of isomers?

A

Structural isomers and sterioisomers

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40
Q

What are the 3 types of structural isomers?

A

Chain isomers, Positional isomers, functional group isomers

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41
Q

What are chain isomers?

A

When the carbon skeleton can be arranged differently, e.g. as a branched or straight chain

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42
Q

What are positional isomers?

A

When the functional group is attached to a different carbon atom

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43
Q

What are functional group isomers?

A

When the same atoms can be arranged into different functional groups

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44
Q

What is the general formula of alkanes?

A

CnH2n+2

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45
Q

Alkanes are saturated, what does this mean?

A

All the carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds

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46
Q

What is heterolytic fission?

A

The bond breaks unevenly with one of the atoms receiving both of the electrons

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47
Q

What is homolytic fission?

A

The bond breaks evenly with each bonding atom recieving 1 electron, forming radicals

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48
Q

When halogens react with akanes, what do they form?

A

Halogenoalkanes

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49
Q

What are photochemical reactions?

A

Reactions that are started by light

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50
Q

When chlorine and methane react together, what are the 3 stages of the reaction mechanism?

A
  • Initiation
  • Propagation
  • Termination
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51
Q

What happens in initiation reactions?

A

-Sunlight provides enough energy to break the Cl-Cl bond, the bond breaks evenly and radicals are formed

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52
Q

What is photodissociation?

A

When a chemical reaction is broken down by photons

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53
Q

What happens in the propagation reaction?

A

A radical Cl* attacks a methane molecule. The new methyl radical CH3 can attack a Cl2 molecule. The new Cl radical can attack another CH4 molecule until all the Cl2 or CH4 molecules are wiped out

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54
Q

What happens in the termination reaction?

A

Radicals are wiped out by reacting to form stable molecules e.g. Cl+Cl –> Cl2 CH3+Cl —> Ch3Cl

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55
Q

What are the main problems with when you react halogens with alkanes?

A
  • You get a mixture of products
  • You have to separate from unwanted products
  • A mixture of structural isomers can be formed
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56
Q

What is petroleum?

A

Crude oil - sticky black stuff out of oil wells

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57
Q

What is crude oil a mixture of?

A

Hydrocarbons - mostly alkanes

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58
Q

How does fractional distillation work?

A
  • Crude oil is vaporised at 350 C
  • The vaporised crude oil goes into a fractionating column.
  • As the crude oil vapour goes up the fractionating collumn, it gets cooler and the fractions are drawn off at different levels
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59
Q

In fractionating columns, why do the largest hydrocarbons form a residue at the bottom?

A

They don’t vaporise at all as their boiling points are too high

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60
Q

In crude oil, what can 5-12 carbons be used for?

A

Petrol

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61
Q

In crude oil, what can 11-15 carbons be used for?

A

Jet oil

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62
Q

What is ‘cracking’?

A

Breaking long chain alkanes into smaller hydrocarbons, which includes breaking the C-C bonds

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63
Q

What is thermal cracking?

A

Cracking at a high pressure and temperature which produces a lot of alkenes

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64
Q

What is catalyctic cracking?

A

Cracking which uses a zeolite catalyst and produces mostly aromatic hydrocarbons and motor fuels

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65
Q

What are aromatic hydrocarbons?

A

Compounds that contain a ring of 6 carbon atoms with a delocalised ring of electrons

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66
Q

What is knocking?

A

Where alkanes explode on their own accord when the fuel/air in the mixture is compressed

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67
Q

How do you make knocking less likely?

A

Adding branched chain and cyclic hydrocarbons to the petrol makes knocking less likely

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68
Q

Name 2 types of compound that are produced by reforming?

A

Cycloalkanes, branched alkanes

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69
Q

What happens when you burn alkanes in oxygen?

A

You get carbon dioxide and water

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70
Q

What is a combustion reaction?

A

When you burn alkanes in oxygen

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71
Q

What is incomplete combustion?

A

When there isn’t much oxygen around, so mainly carbon monoxide, carbon and water are produced

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72
Q

Why are alkanes excellent fuels?

A

Because they release so much energy when they burn

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73
Q

What is methane used for?

A

Central heating and cooking in homes

74
Q

Why is carbon monoxide bad?

A

Carbon dioxide is better at binding to haemoglobin than oxygen, so less oxygen can be carried around the body

75
Q

How does sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides lead to acid rain?

A

Sulfur burns to produce sulfur dioxide gas and then enters the atmosphere, dissolves in the moisture and is converted into sulfuric acid

76
Q

What do catalyctic converters do?

A

They remove some pollutants from car emissions by using a platinum catalyst to change them into harmless gases, like water vapour and nitrogen or carbon dioxide.

77
Q

What are biofuels made from?

A

Living matter over a short period of time

78
Q

What is bioethonal?

A

Ethanol made from the fermentation of sugar from crops such as maize

79
Q

What is biodiesel?

A

Made from refining renewable fats and oils such as vegetable oil

80
Q

What is biogas?

A

Gas produced by the breakdown of organic waste matter

81
Q

Why are biofuels classed as carbon neutral?

A

The produce the CO2 when burnt, but it is the same amount they absorbed while growing

82
Q

What is the main problem from switching to biofuels in transport?

A

Petrol car engines would have to be modified to use fuels with high ethanol concentrations

83
Q

What is the general formula of alkenes?

A

CnH2n

84
Q

Why are alkenes unsaturated?

A

They can make more bonds with extra atoms in addition reactions

85
Q

What are sigma bonds?

A

Single covalent bonds in organic molecles

86
Q

When is a sigma bond formed?

A

When 2 orbitals overlap, in a straight line, in the space between two atoms

87
Q

What does the high electron density in sigma bonds mean?

A

There is strong electrostatic attraction between the nuclei and the shared pair of electrons

88
Q

Why are sigma bonds the strongest type of covalent bonds?

A

There is strong electrostatic attraction between the nuclei and shared pair of electrons so sigma bonds have high bond enthalpy

89
Q

What is a double bond made up of?

A

A sigma bond and a pi-bond

90
Q

When is a pi bond formed?

A

Two lobes of two orbitals overlap sideways

91
Q

Why is the electrostatic attraction between the nuclei and shared pair of electrons weaker in pi bonds?

A

The elcectron density is spread out above and below the nuclei, so the elctrostatic attraction is weaker

92
Q

In alkenes, what are all the C-C and C-H bonds?

A

Sigma bonds

93
Q

In alkenes what are all the C=C bonds?

A

Sigma and pi bonds

94
Q

As all the carbon atoms in a C=C double bonds and the atoms bonded to them are in the same plane, what does this mean?

A

All the angles are the same

95
Q

Why can’t atoms rotate round a C=C bond?

A

Because of the way the p-orbitals overlap to form a pi-bond

96
Q

What are sterioisomers?

A

Compounds that have the same structural formula, but different arrangement in space

97
Q

Why can alkenes have sterioisomers?

A

Because of the lack of rotation around the double bond

98
Q

When do sterioisomers occur?

A

When the two double-bonded carbon atoms each have 2 different groups attached to them

99
Q

What does the Z isomer have?

A

The same groups either both above or both below the double bond

100
Q

What does the E isomer have?

A

The same groups positioned across the double bond. E=opposite

101
Q

How do you work out which is the Z isomer, and which is the E isomer for any alkene?

A
  • The atom with the higher atomic number is given priority.

- When looking at the isomer, see how the groups of the same priority are arranged

102
Q

What does ‘cis’ mean?

A

The same groups on the same side of the double bond

103
Q

What does ‘trans’ mean?

A

The same groups on opposite sides of the double bond

104
Q

When doesn’t the cis/trans naming system work?

A

When the carbon atoms have different functional groups attached to them so there is no way of deciding which is cis and which is trans

105
Q

What happens to alkenes in an electrophillic addition reaction?

A

The alkene double bond opens up and atoms are added to the carbon atoms

106
Q

Why do electrophillic addition reactions happen to alkenes?

A

The double bond has got plenty of electrons so is easily attacked by electrophiles

107
Q

What are electrophiles usually?

A

Positively charged ions and polar molecules

108
Q

What happens when you add hydrogen to C=C bonds? What are the reaction conditions?

A

They produce alkanes. It required a nickel catalyst and a temperature of 150 C

109
Q

When halogens react with alkanes, what do they form?

A

Dihalogenoalkanes

110
Q

When you shake an alkene with brown bromine water, what happens?

A

The solution quickly decoulorises

111
Q

Why does the solution decoulorise when you shake an alkene with bromine?

A

Because dibromoalkane is a colourless solution

112
Q

How can you manufacture ethanol from ethene?

A

Alkenes can be hydrated by steam at 300 C and a pressure of 60 atm to form ethanol. A solid phosphoric acid catalyst is required for the reaction

113
Q

What is a diol?

A

An alcohol with 2 -OH groups

114
Q

If you shake an alkene with acidified potassium manganate, what happens to the purple solution?

A

It is decoulorised, as you’ve oxidised the alkene and made it a diol

115
Q

When alkenes undergo addition reaction with hydrogen halides, what is formed?

A

Halogenoalkanes

116
Q

What does primary carbocation mean?

A

1 alkyl group

117
Q

What does tertiary carbocation mean?

A

3 alkly groups attached to the carbon

118
Q

Why are carbocations with more alkyl groups more stable?

A

Because the alkyl groups feed electrons towards the positive charge

119
Q

Which carbocation is most likely to attract a bromine atom out of a primary and secondary carbocation?

A

A secondary carbocation as it is more stable

120
Q

What can the double bond in alkenes open up and join together to make?

A

Long chains called polymers

121
Q

What is addition polymerisation?

A

When alkenes open up their double bonds and join together to form a polymer

122
Q

How do you find the monomer used to make a polymer?

A

Take the repeat unit, add a double bond between the carbons

123
Q

What are the 3 main ways of disposing of polymers?

A

Burying them, reusing them, burning them

124
Q

When is landfill used?

A

-When the plastic is difficult to separate from other waste, too difficult to recycle

125
Q

How do you reuse waste plastics?

A
  • melting and remoulding them

- cracking them into monomers

126
Q

How do you burn waste plastics to get electricity?

A

Heat can be used to generate electricity, however toxic gases can be released, which is why waste gases are passed through scrubbers which can neutralise gases

127
Q

How should a polymer be designed? (2 main factors)

A

To minimise the impact on human health and the environment

128
Q

What are the set of principles that chemists must follow when designing a sustainable polymer manufacturing process?

A
  • Use reactant molecules that are safe and environmentally friendly
  • Renewable materials
  • Energy use should be kept at a minimum
  • Limit waste products
  • Make sure lifespan of polymer is appropriate
129
Q

What are the advantages of using renewable materials?

A
  • Don’t run out
  • When they biodegrade, if the polymer is plant based it will release the same amount of CO2 as it has absorbed
  • Save energy
130
Q

What sort of materials can biodegradable polymers be made from?

A

Starch, oil fractions such as isoprene

131
Q

What is the purpose of scrubbers?

A

To neutralise gases, by allowing them to react with a base

132
Q

What are halogenoalkanes?

A

Alkanes with halogen atoms

133
Q

What is a primary halogenoalkane?

A

Where there is one alkyl group and 2 hydrogen atoms

134
Q

What is a tertiary halogenoalkane?

A

Where there is no hydrogen atoms and 3 alkyl groups

135
Q

How can halogenoalkanes be hydrolysed to alcohols?

A

By reacting them with water

136
Q

When bromoethane reacts with water, what is formed?

A

Ethanol + H+ + Br-

137
Q

When you mix a halogenoalkane with water and an alcohol is formed, why would you also want to put silver nitrate in the solution also?

A

The silver ions will react with the halide ions, giving a silver nitrate precipitate

138
Q

Describe an experiment where you can compare the reactivities of halogenoalkanes using experiments?

A
  • Set up 3 test tubes containing a different halogenoalkanes, ethanol and silver nitrate solution
  • Time how long it takes for a precipitate to form in each test tube
139
Q

What solution forms a precipitate faster out of a primary and tertiary halogenoalkanes?

A

Tertiary halogenoalkanes

140
Q

In order to hydrolyse a halogenoalkane, what do you need to break?

A

The carbon-halogen bond

141
Q

What reacts faster, a halogenoalkane with a a weaker carbon-halogen bond or a stronger carbon-halogen bond?

A

A halogenoalkane with a weaker carbon-halogen bond

142
Q

Which halogen has the stronger C-X bond and which has the weakest C-X bond?

A

C-F is the strongest bond and C-I is the weakest bond

143
Q

Which halogen is the most reactive halogenoalkane?

A

Iodine, as the C-I bond is the weakest bond

144
Q

Why is the carbon-halogen bond polar?

A

Because the halogen atom is slightly more electronegative than the carbon atom

145
Q

What is nucleophillic substitution in respect to halogenoalkanes?

A

A nucleophile bonds with the carbon atom in the halogenoalkanes and is substituted for the halogen

146
Q

What happens when halogenoalkanes react with aqueous KOH?

A

An alcohol is formed (ROH) +KX

147
Q

If you reflux a halogenoalkane with potassium cyanide in ethanol, what happens?

A

A nitrile is formed

148
Q

What is a nitrile?

A

C=- N triple bond

149
Q

When halogenoalkanes react with ammonia, what do they form?

A

Amines

150
Q

What is an amine?

A

compounds that contain a nitrogen atom with a lone pair

151
Q

If you warm a halogeoalkane with excess ethanolic ammonia, what happens?

A

The ammonia swaps place with the halogen

152
Q

Once the ammonia has swapped place with the halogen, what happens next?

A

An ammoni molecule moves a hydrogen from the NH3 group to leave an amine

153
Q

If you react a halogenoalkane with a warm alkali dissolved in ethanol, what do you get?

A

Alkene + Water + KX

154
Q

When you react a halogenoalkane with a warm alkali dissolved in ethanol, what must the mixture be heated under?

A

Reflux

155
Q

What is a primary alcohol?

A

An alcohol where the carbon the -OH is bonded to only connects to 1 other carbon

156
Q

What is a tertiary alcohol?

A

An alcohol where the carbon the -OH is bonded to connects to 2 other carbons

157
Q

What is PCl5?

A

Phosphorus pentachloride

158
Q

If you react an alcohol with phosphorus pentachloride, what is produced?

A

A chloroalkane (RCl)

159
Q

If you react an alcohol with hydrochloric acid, what is produced?

A

A chloroalkane (RCl)

160
Q

When alcohols react with compounds containing bromide ions (e.g. KBr) in a substitution reaction, what can be formed?

A

A bromoalkane

161
Q

How can you make iodoalkanes?

A

React an alcohol with phosphorus triiodide (PI3)

162
Q

When alcohols are dehdrated, what do they form?

A

Alkenes

163
Q

How do you dehdrate an alcohol?

A

Mix with an acid catalyst, and the alcohol will eliminate water

164
Q

When butan-2-ol dehyddrates to form a mixture of products, what are the 3 possible isomer products?

A

But-1-ene E-but-2-ene Z-but-2-ene

165
Q

What is the simplest way to oxidise alcohols?

A

Burn them ( complete combustion)

166
Q

What are primary alcohols oxides to?

A

Aldehydes and then to carboxclic acids

167
Q

What do secondary alcohols oxidise to?

A

Ketones only

168
Q

WHat do teritary alcohols oxidises to?

A

Tertiary alcohols can’t be oxidised

169
Q

What is an aldehyde?

A

Aldehydes have a hydrogen and one alkly attached to the carbonyl carbon atom

170
Q

What is the carbon carbonyl atom?

A

C=O

171
Q

What is a ketone?

A

Where there is 2 alkyl groups attached to the carbonyl carbon atom

172
Q

When oxidising an alcohol, do you distil or reflux for an aldehyde, and do you distil or reflux to then get a carboxylic acid?

A

Distil for an aldehyde, reflux for a carboxylic acid

173
Q

Do you reflux or distil to oxides a secondary alcohol?

A

You reflux

174
Q

What does refluxing involve?

A

Heating a mixture in a flask fitted with a vertical Liebig condenser - this continuously boils, evaporates and condenses the vapours and recycles them back into the flask

175
Q

Why do you reflux?

A

To make sure that you don’t lose any volatile organic substances

176
Q

Why do you use distillation?

A

To separate substances with different boiling points

177
Q

How does distillation work?

A
  • By gently heating a mixture in a distillation apparatus
  • The substances will evaporate out of the mixture in order of increasing boiling point
  • When the thermometer shows the temp is changing, change the flask as a different liquid is being delivered
178
Q

When would you use the technique of separation?

A

If a product is insoluble in water you can use separation to remove any impurities that do dissolve in water e.g.salts

179
Q

How does separation work?

A
  • Pour the mixture into a separating funnel, and add water
  • The organic layer and aqueous layer do not mix
  • Open up the tap and run each layer off
180
Q

How do you remove traces of water from a mixture?

A
  • Add an anhydrous salt such as magnesium sulfate or calcium chloride
  • The salt binds to any water present to become hydrated
  • You can filter the mixture to remove the solid drying agent

Chemistry (25 decks)

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