Chapter 6 Flashcards
Memory is the ability to ____ and ____ information over time
store; retrieve
What are the three key functions of memory?
1) encoding
2) storage
3) retrieval
What is encoding?
The process of transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory
What is storage?
the process of maintaining information in memory over time
What is retrieval?
the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored
How do we make memories?
combine info already in our brains w/new information from senses; CONSTRUCTED, not recorded
What is semantic encoding?
process of relating new info in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory
Where in the brain do semantic judgements take place?
frontal lobe (lower left) temporal lobe (inner left)
Describe experiment w/semantic memorization
Participants given list of words, diff. ways to memorize i.e. rhyme, capital letters, meaning; the group who thought a/b words’ meaning remembered them more often
What is visual imagery encoding?
the process of storing new info by converting it into mental pictures
Why is visual imagery encoding so effective?
gives you both visual and verbal placeholders for an item; also it relates to other info in your head
Where is visual imagery encoding in brain?
occipital lobe (shows that ppl enlist visual system)
What is organizational coding? Who used it in experiment?
process of categorizing info according to the relationships among a series of items; servers in restaurant
Where in brain is active during organizational coding?
upper left frontal lobe
Evolutionary perspective is encoding?
Survival and planning encoding more effective b/c of natural selection
What is sensory memory?
a type of storage that holds sensory info for a few seconds or less
Describe experiments with sensory memory
12 letters in 3 rows flashed on screen quickly, ppl asked to recall them and couldnt; either they couldnt encode them all or they did encode them and just forgot; researchers discovered the latter was true because right after letters flashed they randomly played high, med, or low tone to correspond to row and ppl got it right; showed that sensory mem like afterimage of flashlight
What is iconic memory? What type of memory is it?
fast-decaying store of visual info; sensory
What is echoic memory? What type of memory is it? example?
fast-decaying store of auditory info; sensory i.e. when you replay words in ur head that someone just said
What is short-term memory?
holds nonsensory info for more than a few seconds but less than a minute
How do we get something into short-term memory?
we need to attend to it; attention is key
Rehearsal is the process of keeping info in _____ _____ memory by mentally ______ it
short-term; repeating
What is the serial position effect?
the first few and last few items in a series are more likely to be recalled than the items in the middle
What is the primacy effect?
enhanced recall of the first few items b/c they have more rehearsal
What is the recency effect?
enhanced recall of the last few items; can result from rehearsing items that are still in short-term storage
How many meaningful items can short-term memory hold?
seven
What is chunking?
combining small pieces of info into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short-term memory
What is working memory?
active maintenance of info in short-term storage
Working memory includes two subsystems that store and manipulate info; what are they?
1) visuo-spatial sketchpad (visual images)
2) phonological loop (verbal info)
What does the episodic buffer do in working memory?
integrates visual and verbal info from the subsystems into a multidimensional code
What coordinates the subsystems and the episodic buffer in working memory?
central executive
Long-term memory is a type of storage that holds info for ____, ____, ____, or _____
hours; days; weeks; years
T/F Long-term memory has known capacity limits
FALSE
Studies of HM showed that ____ ____ is critical for putting new info in long-term
hippocampal region
What is anterograde amnesia?
inability to transfer new info from the short-term into the long-term
What is retrograde amnesia?
the inability to retrieve info that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or surgery
The fact that HM had worse _____ than _____ amnesia suggests that the hippocampal region is not the site of ____ ____ _____
anterograde; retrograde; long-term memory
What is consolidation?
the process by which memories become stable in the brain
What is reconsolidation?
memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, thus requiring them to be consolidated again
What did rat shocking experiments reveal about memory?
when rats were prompted to recall memory, a shock to area of initial consolidation will cause forgetting; each time memories are retrieved, they are vulnerable to disruption `
Connections between neurons are strengthened by their _____
communication
Describe Aplysia experiments
Tail is shocked, it retracts; shocked right after, retracts quicker; hours later it retracts same amount as if it forgot; shocked over and over again, and aplysia will remember in long-term
What is the long-term potentiation?
a process whereby communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making the connections easier i.e. stimulated rats in hippocampus
What is a retrieval cue?
external info that is associated with stored info and helps bring it to mind
Describe experiments with memory retrieval & prompting
Ppl given words to remember then recite; after they thought they said all words they knew, researchers prompted them with categories i.e. fruit and ppl remembered more
Word experiments with memory retrieval showed that info is sometimes _____ in memory even when it is momentarily _____
available; inaccessible
What is the encoding specificity principle?
a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which info was initially encoded
Example of encoding specificity principle
sitting in same seat in class and test; scuba word memorizing experiment
What is state-dependent retrieval?
the process whereby info tends to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval
Examples of state-dependent retrieval?
studying drunk and taking test drunk; being happy at memory and retrieval
What is transfer-appropriate processing?
the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts match i.e. ur more likely to remember word the next day if u encoded it as rhyming and it was recalled as rhyming
Study vs test?
At 2 day and week marks, those in testing group produced significantly better results than studying group
What is retrieval-induced forgetting?
a process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items
Experiment with retrieval-induced forgetting
Fruits and tree names; prompted with i.e. i”fruit- or___” and on test, remembered prompted fruit best, unprompted trees next, and unprompted fruits worst (suppressed)
Examples of retrieval-induced forgetting
1) 9/11 convos make ppl forget details not spoken about
2) eye-witnesses remembering details they were not asked about
Experiment where retrieval changes memory
participants who went to museum and vividly remembered exhibits during first session were more likely to incorporate wrong photos into their memory
When people successfully remembered words they saw earlier, the ______ showed increased activity; when ppl tried but failed to recall words, the ______ showed increased activity
hippocampus; left frontal lobe
What is explicit memory?
occurs when ppl consciously or intentionally retrieve past experiences
What is implicit memory?
past experiences influence later behavior and performance, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection
What is procedural memory?
the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or “knowing how” to do things
What is priming?
an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of recent exposure to the stimulus
Priming is an example of ______ (explicit/implicit) memory. Describe experiment
implicit; 17 years drawing experiment; even though no conscious memory of experiment, still was primed
What are 2 different types of priming?
perceptual and conceptual
What is semantic memory?
the network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world
What is episodic memory?
the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place
The hippocampus is not necessary for acquiring new _____ memories
semantic
We rely on _____ ____ to envision our personal futures
episodic memory
How did the collaborative group in the study perform on memory tasks compared to the nominal group?
Collaborative group did better than individuals alone, but worse than nominal group (combined recall of individuals); demonstrates collaborative inhibition
What is transience?
forgetting what occurs with the passage of time
What is retroactive interference?
situations in which later learning impairs memory for info acquired earlier i.e. remembered what you did at work on Monday when it’s Friday
What is proactive interference?
situations in which earlier learning impairs memory for info acquired later i.e. parking spot at school
What is absentmindedness?
a lapse in attention that results in memory failure
There is less activity in the ___ ____ ____ when attention is divided
left frontal lobe
What is prospective memory?
remembering to do things in the future
What is blocking?
a failure to retrieve info that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it
What is memory misattribution?
assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source
What is source memory?
recall of when, where, and how info was acquired
What is false memory?
a feeling of familiarity about something that hasn’t been encountered before
What is suggestibility?
the tendency to incorporate misleading info from external sources into personal recollections
What is bias (relating to memory)?
the distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences
What is consistency bias?
the bias to reconstruct the past to fit the present
What is change bias?
the tendency to exaggerate differences between what we feel or believe now and what we felt or believed in the past
What is egocentric bias?
the tendency to exaggerate the change between the present and past in order to make ourselves look good in retrospect i.e. blood donors overestimating nervousness about giving blood
What is persistence?
the intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget
What are flashbulb memories?
detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events
What structure in the brain is important in emotional memories?
amygdala
