chapter 6

Question 1

memory

Answer 1

an information processing system that actively receives, organises, stores and recovers information

Question 2

the information processing model
1. ENCODING

Answer 2

-converting sensory information into a useable form that can be processed by the brain.
-the first stage
-for the encoding process to begin you must pay attention to the information

Question 3

the information processing model
2. STORAGE

Answer 3

-retaining information over time
-if we store the information in an organised way it makes it easier to recover memories when we need them.

Question 4

the information processing model
3. RETRIEVAL

Answer 4

-accessing information that has previously been stored
-the process of locating and recovering the stored information from memory so that we are consciously aware of it.
-Retrieval relies on using the right cues or hints so that we can locate the correct piece of information in the vast network of our memories

Question 5

information processing model

Answer 5

sensory information
↓
ENCODING: converting information into a usable form
↓
STORAGE: retaining information for a period of time
↓
RETRIEVAL: accessing information that has been previously stored

Question 6

multi-store model of memory

Answer 6

-suggests that there are 3 independent stores that function simultaneously and interact with each other to process information
-each store processes information in a different way and varies in its role, capacity and duration.

ROLE: the function of a memory store.
CAPACITY: the amount of information held within a memory store.
DURATION: the length of time information is held within a memory store.

Question 7

LOOK AT THE MULTI-STORE MODEL OF MEMORY DIAGRAM

Question 8

sensory memory

Answer 8

-a memory store that receives and stores an unlimited amount of incoming sensory information for a brief time.
-we are not consciously aware of the information that is held in sensory memory, you must pay attention to important sensory information for it to be further processed and transferred into the next memory store, short-term memory.
-If you do not attend to this sensory information, it will be lost from your memory forever.

Question 9

sensory memory
-function

Answer 9

-sensory memory is the entry point for all new sensory stimuli
-Sensory memory filters out any unnecessary information, preventing us from being overwhelmed by the vast
amount of sensory information (more likely to focus on information that is novel, relevant or important to us)

-Sensory memory also stores sensory impressions long enough for each impression to slightly overlap the first. This allows us to perceive the world around us as continuous, rather than as a series of disconnected images or sounds

Question 10

sensory memory
-capacity

Answer 10

-unlimited capacity
- its storage capabilities are structured to deal with the immense amounts of sensory stimuli entering at any given time.

Question 11

sensory memory
-duration

Answer 11

-Sensory memory holds information for 0.2–4 seconds.
- it is extremely brief but long enough for the large amount of sensory information to be temporarily stored and assessed by the brain to decide whether it should enter short-term memory or not.
-each sense has a sensory register, duration varies from a fraction of a second to a few seconds depending on the register.
e.g. it takes a small amount of time to process an image (visual register) but longer to process each word of a sentence (auditory register).

Question 12

echoic and iconic memory

Answer 12

ICONIC:
Function- Exact replica of visual information
Duration- 0.3–0.5
Capacity- unlimited

ECHOIC:
Function- Exact replica of auditory information
Duration- 3–4 seconds
Capacity- Unlimited

Question 13

short-term memory

Answer 13

-after information has been attended to in sensory memory it is moved to short-term memory.
-A memory store that has limited capacity of short duration, unless the information is renewed.
-information that has been transferred from sensory memory to short term memory is no longer in its raw form, but rather is an encoding of the information based on its sensory form.
-in this memory store, information is conscious and actively manipulated so we can retain the information for long enough to use it.
-it is where all conscious mental processes such as decision making or perception origionates.

-recieves information from sensory memory and transfers information to and from long term memory.
-short term memory can be easily lost unless it is renewed or manipulated.

Question 14

short-term memory
-function

Answer 14

-Once information has entered our short-term memory, we can actively manipulate the encoded information while we complete everyday tasks.
-This occurs through receiving and integrating information from both sensory memory and long-term memory.

EXAMPLE:
- when you go to a cafe and try a new food, your sensory memory receives sensory information about the food, such as the colour, taste and texture, and sends it to your short term memory.
- Your short-term memory retrieves and compares existing information that was held by your long-term memory about similar foods that you have eaten in the past. By comparing this information, your short-term memory can then send new information (that the food is delicious) to your long-term memory for long-term storage.

Question 15

short-term memory
-capacity

Answer 15

-holds a limited amount of information
-Short-term memory has a smaller capacity than sensory memory or long-term memory
-an average adult can only hold 7 ± 2 items, or 5–9 unrelated items, in short-term memory.
-if short-term memory is at capacity, new items can only be added if some old items are pushed out. (known as displacement)

-Displacement can make it difficult to do more than one task at a time when manipulating information in short-term memory.

-capacity in short-term memory can be extended by the process chunking (grouping separate items together EG. phone number)

Question 16

short-term memory
-duration

Answer 16

-The duration of short-term memory is limited compared to sensory memory and long-term memory, lasting for 18–30 seconds. if after 30 seconds the info is not manipulated it will fade and be lost (DECAY)
-decay can be prevented by rehearsal (the conscious manipulation of information to keep it in short-term memory for longer or to transfer it to long-term memory)

-MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL- which is when you repeat the information being remembered either vocally (out loud) or sub-vocally (in your head) to preserve it in your short-term memory.

-ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL- the best way to transfer info into long-term memory - involves giving meaning to new information and making associations with other information already stored in your long-term memory. (creating questions, mind maps)

Question 17

long-term memory

Answer 17

-A relatively permanent memory system that holds vast amounts of information for an extended period, possibly for life. (LTM)
-After information in short-term memory has been processed, it is transferred to the last
level of the multi-store model, long-term memory.
-when information is transferred to long term memory, it undergoes further encoding according to its meaning and it once again becomes unconscious - to prevent us from being overwhelmed by the vast amount of info that is stored in long-term memory.

Question 18

long-term memory
-function

Answer 18

-Information stored in long-term memory is organised semantically, which means that the meaning of the word, phrase, picture, event or thing is encoded, as opposed to its sensory input (e.g. sound, image or texture).
-semantic info is stored for a long time in an organised way, according to meaning.
-having your memories well organised means that you can retrieve the info more efficiently.

Question 19

long-term memory
-capacity

Answer 19

-unlimited capacity, can store a lifetime of memories

Question 20

long-term memory
-duration

Answer 20

-the duration of long-term memory is
relatively permanent in comparison to sensory and short-term memory.
-information is thought to last in the memory store for a long time, sometimes for life.
-info can decay because of physical or psychological factors (e.g. Alzheimers or dementias)

Question 21

implicit and explicit memories

Answer 21

-different types of memories can be categorised as either implicit memory or explicit memory - both types of memories involve information that is retrieved from long-term memory.

Question 22

EXPLICIT MEMORY

Answer 22

-information that can be consciously retrieved from LTM and stated, such as ‘known facts’.

-Explicit memory can otherwise be known as declarative or ‘knowing that’ information because it tends to be expressed as words or symbols and is easily verbalised.

DECLARATIVE MEMORY:
-an explicit long-term memory of specific facts and events, most of which can be stated or ‘declared’.

DIFFERENT MEMORIES CAN BE CONSIDERED EXPLICIT:
Semantic memory- the declarative memory of facts or knowledge about the world

Episodic memory -the declarative memory of personally experienced events

Question 23

IMPLICIT MEMORY

Answer 23

-memory not requiring conscious retrieval from LTM, such as ‘how to’ skills.
-Implicit memory does not require conscious or intentional retrieval.

-are referred to as non-declarative or ‘how to’ knowledge because they include memory of stored routines and emotional responses.
-different from explicit memory because it can be very difficult to verbalise how to perform a sequence of actions required to do something.

Question 24

Some types of implicit memories are:

Answer 24

procedural memory:
- knowledge of skills, habits or actions; for example, knowing how to type, knowing how to arrange flowers or how to do your hair.

conditioned emotional response:
-a learned emotional reaction occurs in response to a stimulus or an event that you have formed an association with.
-A conditioned emotional response typically involves negative emotions such as fear or anger, but it can also involve strong positive emotions such as happiness or excitement.

Question 25

types of long-term memories

Answer 25

types of long-term memories:
↓
IMPLICIT MEMORY (Memory that is unconsciously or unintentionally recalled)
&
EXPLICIT MEMORY (Memory that is consciously or intentionally recalled)

IMPLICIT MEMORY
↓
simple motor responses (procedural memory)
&
simple classically conditioned responses (e.g. fear and anxiety)

EXPLICIT MEMORY
↓
Facts, general knowledge (semantic memory)
&
Personal experiences (episodic memory)

Question 26

BRAIN REGIONS INVOLVED IN MEMORY
hippocampus

Answer 26

-involved in formation of longterm explicit memories and their transfer to the cerebral cortex for storage.

-in the temporal lobe, within the midbrain (that is, under the cerebral cortex)
-finger-sized structure that resembles a wishbone
-The lower part of the hippocampus forms two structures that each lie in one hemisphere of the brain

Question 27

hippocampus key roles

Answer 27

-the hippocampus encodes, consolidates and retrieves explicit memories.
e.g. the hippocampus forms (encodes) and sets (consolidates) the memory of the number of your seat. It retrieves the number into your conscious awareness so you can locate it.

-The hippocampus transfers newly encoded explicit memories to relevant parts of the brain for permanent long-term storage.
e.g. sends the memory of your seat number to be stored in your neocortex

-the hippocampus interacts with the amygdala to link emotions to explicit memories
(hippocampus encodes explicit memories of an event whereas amygdala encodes the emotions related to the event)

Question 28

BRAIN REGIONS INVOLVED IN MEMORY
neocortex

Answer 28

-the top layer of the cerebral cortex that is
involved in highorder mental processes such as language, attention and memory.

-the neocortex is divided into two hemispheres, each has 4 lobes (all involved in memory)
-Although the hippocampus encodes information and sends it to be stored, the neocortex is the part of the brain that actually stores explicit memories for a long time.
- Memories are usually permanently stored
in the areas where the sensory input was first processed.
e.g. at a concert each part of memory is stored in a different part of the brain; the music sound (temporal lobe) the vision of the musician (occipital lobe)
- when required separate parts are brought together.

Question 29

the four lobes of the brain

Answer 29

-the neocortex is divided into two hemispheres, each has 4 lobes (all involved in memory)

FRONTAL LOBE- emotions, personality, movement
PARIETAL LOBE- touch, pain, temperature, spatial awareness
OCCIPITAL LOBE- sight (visual information)
TEMPORAL LOBE- hearing (auditory information)

Question 30

BRAIN REGIONS INVOLVED IN MEMORY
amygdala

Answer 30

-a structure located deep in the temporal midbrain; involved in emotional reactions and formation of emotional memories particularly relating to fear.

-a lies behind the temple, deep under the cerebral cortex
-The amygdala is an almond-shaped ball of neurons that is attached to the hippocampus.
-There is an amygdala in each hemisphere.
-a is responsible for the regulation of emotions such as fear and aggression, which enhances the significance of an event.
-plays a part in the memorability of experiences because the storage of memory is influenced by the initiation of the flight-or-fight-or-freeze response and stress hormones.
- helps stores memories of events and emotions so that you can recognise similar situations in the future (especially if they are linked to survival) e.g. bitten by dog - increases alertness around dogs

-also responsible for encoding explicit memories to do with emotions. e.g. being bitten is frightening, amygdala encodes the information of fear you felt when the dog bit you, then activates the hippocampus to encode the explicit event as significant.

Question 31

BRAIN REGIONS INVOLVED IN MEMORY
basal ganglia

Answer 31

-a group of structures deep within the cerebral hemispheres; involved in motor movement, procedural memory and learning

-responsible for forming and guiding habits -one of the main roles is the formation of implicit procedural memory, specifically habits.
-The basal ganglia work to form habits by associating movement with reward or reinforcement.
-The basal ganglia are active when we move a part of our body in a new way when stimulated by a cue
e.g. we might encounter roadworks on our journey home and therefore take a route that results in getting home more quickly. When we feel a sense of accomplishment for trying something new, or when the action results in a positive outcome, the association between the reward and the action is recognised.
The reward indicates to the basal ganglia that the behaviour is useful and worth remembering for the future.

Question 32

BRAIN REGIONS INVOLVED IN MEMORY
basal ganglia P2

Answer 32

HABBIT LOOP:
-cycle of cue then reward
-Whenever the loop is repeated, the behaviour related to the sequence of movement is strengthened and becomes more precise and efficient.
-This makes repetitive behaviours automatic, which in turn frees up our brain to focus on other more complex decisions

Question 33

EXAMPLE of cerebellum and basal ganlia

Answer 33

when you learn to play football, your
cerebellum has a role in fine-tuning the coordination of your feet when you are running or kicking a goal. This is not to be confused with your basal ganglia, which ensure that when you kick a goal or head-butt the ball, the series of movements occurs in a fluid, fast and smooth manner. Similarly, your cerebellum also forms and temporarily stores thevmemory of how to engage in this task

Question 34

BRAIN REGIONS INVOLVED IN MEMORY
cerebellum

Answer 34

-a cauliflower shaped structure at the base
of the brain; coordinates timing and fluency of movements; encodes and temporarily stores implicit memories of simple conditioned reflexes.

-forms part of the hindbrain, which consists of structures that control the parts of the body that operate without conscious effort.
-the cerebellum has a role in the encoding and temporary storage of implicit procedural memories for motor skills, more specifically for those created by classical conditioning.
e.g. the cerebellum encodes simple reflexes acquired through classical conditioning such as blinking in response to the sound of a bell. Without a functioning cerebellum, people cannot develop certain conditioned reflexes.

-The cerebellum also has a role in coordinating fine muscle movements and regulating posture and balance.

Question 35

LONG TERM MEMORY divisions

Answer 35

LONG TERM MEMORY
⬇️
EXPLICIT MEMORY
⬇️
hippocampus:
-Encoding and retrieval of personal memories and memories of facts and figures.
&
neocortex:
-Storage of personal memories and memories of facts and figures.

LONG TERM MEMORY
⬇️
IMPLICIT MEMORY
⬇️
amygdala:
-Encoding of implicit memory related to emotion.
&
cerebellum:
-Encoding and temporary storage of implicit memory related to movement.
&
ganglia:
-Encoding of implicit memory related to habits.

Question 36

What are episodic and semantic memories?

Answer 36

-Psychologists believe that declarative memory is further subdivided into semantic memory and episodic memory.

Question 37

What are episodic and semantic memories?
SEMANTIC MEMORY

Answer 37

-Semantic memory refers to the organised factual knowledge you have about the outside world; e.g. what the capital of Norway is (a specific fact or piece of info).
-impersonal

Question 38

What are episodic and semantic memories?
EPISODIC MEMORY

Answer 38

-are our ‘diary like’ record of personal experiences.
-contains memories of distinct personal events (or episodes) that are associated with a particular time and place – day after day, year after year
-E.G. can you remember your first day of secondary school?
-episodic memories are more easily forgotten than semantic memories; because new info is constantly pouring into episodic memory, making it difficult to attend to and therefore encode and store each new memory of a personal event.

Question 39

the role of episodic and semantic memory in retrieving and constructing events

Answer 39

-On the surface, the distinction between episodic and semantic memories is clear-cut - some psychologists believe that this is not necessarily the case.
-In recent years, research has suggested that episodic and semantic memories interact not only to retrieve past events but also to imagine future events.

Question 40

retrieving autobiographical events from the past

Answer 40

-Endel Tulving (proposed the concept of episodic memory) argues that semantic and episodic systems store different information but often work together in forming new memories called autobiographical memories.

Question 41

autobiographical memory

Answer 41

-autobiographical memories are a type of explicit memory.
e.g. the autobiographical memory of your first day at school might contain episodic info (meeting teacher) but it might also contain semantic info (knowledge that the teachers name was susan)

Question 42

autobiographical memory components

Answer 42

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY (memory of our own lives)
⬇️
includes EPISODIC COMPONENTS moments of experience that are linked to time and space.

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY (memory of our own lives)
⬇️
includes SEMANTIC COMPONENTS facts about self and events

-Autobiographical memory is the memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual’s life, based on a combination of episodic and semantic memory.
-it pulls together stored episodic information, with stored semantic information, with other available information to form what is a complete memory.

Question 43

autobiographical memory
EXTRA

Answer 43

-Autobiographical memory is more than just episodic memory - has both semantic and episodic components
-it is a more constructive and integrative information processing system than episodic memory alone.
-Whereas episodic memories are a series of single past events, autobiographical memory links past events together into a personal history that relates self through past, present and future.

-An important function of autobiographical memory is to support our sense of self and
identity. (our self-identity includes abstract representations of our personal characteristics such as our traits, general knowledge about periods and events in our life , and memories of specific happenings in our past)

Question 44

reconstruction

Answer 44

-When we retrieve autobiographical experiences, episodic memory helps us recall an experience as it occurred during a specific time and place.
- Through reconstruction, we combine stored information with other available information to form what is believed to be a more coherent, complete or accurate memory.

-e.g. if you were asked to recall your favourite holiday, you might remember certain features, such as where you went, who was there, what you were wearing and what happened. As all these features and events are recalled from different locations in your long-term memory, they are put together to reconstruct the memory of your holiday, as you would piece together a jigsaw puzzle.

Question 45

episodic future thinking

Answer 45

-projecting yourself forwards in time to pre-experience an event that might happen in your personal future.

-We frequently use future-oriented thoughts every day; these thoughts may be abstract or specific, and personal or non-personal.

Question 46

mental time travel

Answer 46

-the capacity to mentally reconstruct past personal events and imagine possible future scenarios

-We frequently use future-oriented thoughts every day; these thoughts may be abstract or specific, and personal or non-personal.

Question 47

types of future-oriented thoughts

Answer 47

-Abstract and non-personal future events (e.g. considering future environmental issues)
-Specific but non-personal events (e.g. an upcoming public event)
-Abstract but personal events (e.g. the occupation you will take up after graduation)
-Specific and personal future events (e.g. a dinner date with your partner next Saturday)

Question 48

autobiographical memories and episodic future thinking

Answer 48

-autobiographical memories and episodic future thinking occur in the same regions of the brain and appear to use the same underlying processes. (Scientists first learned about this connection by observing
patients with amnesia)
-episodic memory provides the episodic elements (e.g. people, objects, locations) used to recombine and construct future events and scenarios.
- Semantic memory provides a context or framework for constructing and organising the episodic future thinking. Semantic memory may also provide complementary knowledge of one’s personal past.

Question 49

autobiographical memories and episodic future thinking
EXAMPLE

Answer 49

EXAMPLE:
Semantic memories provide the context of the imagined event: where Paris is located, the language that is spoken, the weather at the time of travel.

Episodic memories provide the specific details of what might occur in the imagined
event: who you meet there and what you will do.

Question 50

Alzheimers disease

Answer 50

-a neurodegenerative disease characterised by the progressive deterioration of brain neurons, causing memory loss, decline in cognitive and social skills and personality changes

-the most common form of dementia
- mostly begins in older age and affects 3% of people aged 65-74 years and 32% of people over 85 years.
-incurable (most people die in 8-10 years)

Question 51

diagnosing Alzheimer’s disease

Answer 51

• there is no simple diagnostic to identify Alzheimers
  -one way that can assist in diagnosing alzheimers disease is BRAIN SCANS ( an examination of the brain that shows brain activity and tissues that cannot be detected otherwise) such as computed tomography (CT), or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
  -CT and MRI scans are used to rule out such problems as a tumour, haemorrhage and stroke, which can mask alzheimers disease
  -these scans can also show the loss of brain mass associated with alzheimers (middle or later stages of the disease)

Question 52

diagnosing Alzheimer’s disease P2

Answer 52

-PET scans (provides images of brain activity based on blood flow, oxygen consumption or glucose use) can help narrow down a diagnosis by revealing neural abnormalities common in alzheimers
- however these scans cannot show the microscopic lesions (areas of abnormal tissue) in brain tissue that characterise alzheimers disease.
-scans cannot identify the disease with certainty; can only be confirmed post-mortem

Question 53

symptoms of alzheimers disease

Answer 53

-typically progresses slowly in 3 general stages: early, middle and late (mild, moderate and severe)
-each person may experience symptoms or progress through stages differently
-GENERAL SYMPTOMS: gradual severe memory loss, confusion, impaired attention, disordered thinking, a decline in social skills and personality changes.
-initially, patients have impaired explicit memory (episodic and semantic memory) and eventually have a severe decline in both explicit and implicit memory.

Question 54

alzheimer symptoms
EARLY STAGE (2-4 years)

Answer 54

• Forgets recently read material
• Has trouble organising or planning
• Forgets where valuables have been placed
• Has trouble managing money
• Forgets recent events, names, details about own identity and dates
• Has trouble with challenging tasks at work
• Becomes lost in familiar places

Question 55

alzheimer symptoms
MIDDLE STAGE (2-10 years)

Answer 55

• Experiences delusions, compulsions or repetitive behaviour
• Experiences agitation, restlessness and anxiety
• Needs assistance with getting dressed
• Bladder and bowel function issues
• Has trouble learning new things
• Has problems with reading and writing
• Loses track of time or surroundings
• Experiences sleep disturbances

Question 56

alzheimer symptoms
LATE STAGE (1-3 years)

Answer 56

• Has significant personality and behaviour changes
• Loses ability to hold a conversation
• Has difficulty moving, eating and swallowing
• Loses bladder and bowel control
• Lacks awareness of recent activities or surroundings
• Cannot remember family members and loved ones

Question 57

biological causes of alzheimers disease

Answer 57

Although people who are diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease progress through the three stages at difference paces, the general pattern of biological change is consistent.

Question 58

four changes in the brain that are characteristics of Alzheimers disease

Answer 58

AMYLOID PLAQUE:
-an abnormal build-up of beta-amyloid proteins between the synapses of neurons that interfere with communication.

NEUROFIBRILLARY TANGLES:
-an abnormal build-up of protein inside a neuron that is associated with cell death.
-This interferes with the flow of information within and between neurons, disrupting communication.
-. Alzheimer’s disease systematically destroys the neurons that produce acetylcholine (important memory neurotransmitter)

BRAIN ATROPHY:
-the loss of neurons within the brain.
-Amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles progressively damage neurons, which die, causing the brain tissue to shrink.

Question 59

anterograde amnesia (the future)

Answer 59

-Amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles progressively damage neurons, which die, causing the brain tissue to shrink.

-The hippocampus is one of the first structures affected by atrophy; up to three-quarters of the neurons die and the rest are damaged.
-This means new explicit memories cannot be encoded and consolidated, resulting in anterograde amnesia.

e.g. when suffering from early to mid stage alzheimers typically cant learn new things

Question 60

retrograde amnesia (the past)

Answer 60

-the inability to retrieve previously stored memories after an amnesia causing event.

-The loss of neurons then spreads to the cerebral cortex, resulting in the loss of stored explicit (including episodic, semantic and autobiographical) long-term memories (retrograde amnesia) as well as problems with attention and changes to personality and emotions.
-e.g. not recognise a loved one
-When autobiographical memories are lost, the person also loses their capacity for episodic future thinking.
-e.g. cant imagine going on a trip, will have trouble planning it.

Question 61

aphantasia

Answer 61

-the inability to visualise imagery
-if you were to ask a person with aphantasia to imagine something, they could probably describe the object, explain the concept and list some facts they know about the object.
-but they would not be able to experience any sort of mental image to accompany this knowledge.
-people with this condition may have trouble remembering everyday things ( like the number of windows ona building)

Question 62

people with aphantasia

Answer 62

• struggle to remember or ‘relive’ autobiographical events
• have difficulty imagining future or hypothetical events
• have problems with factual memory
• dream less
• have decreased imagery involving other senses such as sound or touch
• have trouble recognising faces.

Question 63

causes of aphantasia

Answer 63

-Scientists are not sure what causes aphantasia
-but it has been suggested that areas of the brain involved in imagery; such as the visual cortex are underactive.
-another theory is that people with aphantasia do experience mental imagery but cannot access the image in their conscious thoughts.

Question 64

two forms of aphantasia

Answer 64

-CONGENITAL (present from birth)
-AQUIRED (present after brain injury or significant psychological event, such as
depression or anxiety)

Question 65

aphantasia - cure

Answer 65

-There is no known ‘cure’ for congenital aphantasia.
-some people with acquired aphantasia have reported regaining imagery abilities after undergoing therapy
-aphantasia is not a disability but rather a unique variation in human experience.
- having aphantasia does not necessarily inhibit someone’s success in life.

Question 66

what is a mnemonic device?

Answer 66

-any technique used for improving or enhancing memory
-mnemonic learning is much more beneficial compared to learning by simple repetition ( a form of maintenance rehearsal)
-mnemonic devices are particularly active at the encoding stage of memory processing
-At the same time as information is encoded, retrieval cues that will make it easier to find the information are also encoded.

Question 67

how mnemonic devices work:

Answer 67

A mnemonic does not work by reducing the amount of information - information is added to organise the material in long-term memory and to make it easier to locate and retrieve.
-mnemonics organise information into a cohesive whole, and to connect new information to existing information, so that retrieval of part of it generally assists retrieval of all of it.
-mnemonics help make less meaningful information more meaningful, and therefore more memorable.
-work best for remembering information that needs to be memorised but is not necessarily understood.
-more time-consuming and requires more conscious effort than simple repitition

Question 68

written culture

Answer 68

-a culture in which stories and information are shared and preserved through the processes of reading and writing

Question 69

mnemonics in written cultures

Answer 69

-written cultures use mnemonics to increase encoding storage and retrieval of information and represent these in written forms
-for e.g. the written word ANZAC involves chunking the words Australian and new Zealand army crops into smaller bits to aid memory.

-While there are many differences from country to country, the process of learning and retaining information is similar, primarily through studying written texts.
-Written cultures have played a vital role in preserving values, norms and traditions of societies, cultures and religions so that they can later be studied.
-recording information through written word allows it to be easily conserved over a great length of time (generation)

Question 70

method of loci

Answer 70

-a mnemonic system that commits a familiar location or sequence of locations to memory, then visually links them with information that needs to be recalled

-Each location acts as a retrieval cue that makes it easier to retrieve the information when it is needed
-locations used should be familiar to the individual e.g. school building
-you might visualise each item of the list in a different room in your house (you may associate items with locations in which they are used. e.g. soap in bathroom)
-The number of items to be associated must match the number of spaces in your location.
- When you need to recall the items of the shopping list, you take a mental walk through the house and retrieve each item associated with each location.

Question 71

method of loci steps:

Answer 71

-works best when the items to be remembered are in a set order, such as a list, speech or series of steps in a recipe

1. choose the memory palace
2. create a path
3. encode the list
4. recall the list

Question 72

acronyms

Answer 72

-an abbreviation formed from the first letter of each word and pronounced as a single word
-e.g. ANZAC, FOMO, NASA
-the letters of the abbreviation act as cues to retrieve more complex material, making it a mnemonic

Question 73

acrostics

Answer 73

-a phrase (or poem) in which the first letter of each word functions as a cue to help with recall
-e.g. ‘never eat soggy weet-bix’ which identifies the layout of north, east, south, west
- useful when you need to remember information in sequential order, such as a set of history facts or a list of information

Question 74

oral cultures

Answer 74

-a culture in which information and stories are communicated by word of mouth
-people communicated vital information and spread stories by word of mouth before the ability to read and write was commonplace

Question 75

mnemonics in oral cultures

Answer 75

oral cultures use sung narratives to increase encoding, storage and retrieval of info and represent these through song, dance, location.
-for e.g. first Australians use songlines to enable them to remember vast amounts of information by using locations and landscapes as cues to retrieve information.

-Stories, poems or sung narratives were performed in order to pass along an immense amount of historical, religious, cultural and moral teachings to others.
-Oral cultures were effective in retaining information because stories and narratives were performed or sung in a ritualistic way, in which certain things must be said and done in the right order by the right people.
- This meant that this vast amount of information was
held by few individuals who could then disseminate the information for money or during important ceremonies or at significant times of the year.

Question 76

FIRST AUSTRALIANS USE OF SONGLINES
dreaming:

Answer 76

-a guide to life and living; Dreaming is not just stories, it is art, songs, dance; it is written into the land itself
-used for the stories and beliefs about creation
-the dreaming is not linear; it exists in the past, present and future.
-it explains events today, such as storms, floods and events in peoples lives, both good and bad

Question 77

FIRST AUSTRALIANS USE OF SONGLINES
songlines:

Answer 77

-one of many sung narratives of the landscape that weave across Country and enable every significant place in Aboriginal Dreaming to be known
-Songlines trace the journeys of ancestral spirits as they created the land, animals and lore.
- A knowledgeable person can find their way across their Country by singing the songline, which describes landmarks and locations, waterholes and other natural features.
-At each location, a song or story, dance or ceremony is performed that will always be associated with that location and allows the retrieval of Dreaming Stories that contain knowledge of a wide range of subjects

Question 78

songlines & method of loci

Answer 78

-the two memory techniques are similar, but research suggests that there are differences.
-it was concluded that both memory techniques were effective in learning information that is sequential in nature; however, the Aboriginal method seems better suited to teaching in a single, relatively short instruction period.