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chapter 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

organisation of the human nervous system

A

the human nervous system consists of two main divisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system.

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2
Q

human nervous system

A

human nervous system:
-central nervous system
-peripheral nervous system

central nervous system:
-brain
-spinal cord

peripheral nervous system:
-autonomic nervous system
-somatic nervous system

autonomic nervous system:
-sympathetic nervous system
-parasympathetic nervous system

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3
Q

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

A
  • the brain and spinal cord; processes and coordinates responses to sensory stimuli.
    -main function is to integrate and coordinate incoming sensory information and initiates outgoing motor messages to be sent to the body.
    -also to activate appropriate responses.

MAIN FUNCTION:
recieve info
process info
coordinate response

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4
Q

CNS
brain

A

a complex structure that receives and processes sensory stimuli from the body and coordinates responses, including voluntary movements, emotions and conscious thoughts.
-regulates a variety of functions without conscious awareness. (breathing, temperature regulation and hunger)

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5
Q

CNS
spinal cord

A

-long thin bundle of nerve tissue that extends from the base of the brain to lower back.
-links the brain and the parts of the body below the neck.
MAIN FUNCTIONS:
-to receive sensory (afferent) info from the body (via PNS) and send these messages to the brain for processing.
-receive motor (efferent) info from the brain and send to relevant parts of the body (via PNS) to control muscles, glands, and internal organs so that appropriate actions can be taken.

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6
Q

spinal reflex definition

A

an involuntary and unconscious response to a stimulus involving the spinal cord, which occurs without input from the brain.

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7
Q

spinal reflex processes

A

1 A sensory stimulus is detected by sensory receptors, sensory nerve endings that when stimulated, produce an afferent or sensory impulse.

2 Sensory neurons, nerve cells that carry sensory signals throughout the nervous system, transmit sensory information about the stimulus towards the spinal cord.

3 The sensory information is relayed to interneurons in the spinal cord that connect motor and sensory neurons by relaying information between the two. In the case of a spinal reflex, an adaptive motor response is initiated by the interneurons without input from the brain to respond more quickly to the threat detected by the sensory receptors.

4 Information about this motor movement is then relayed to motor neurons, which transmit the motor impulses from the spinal cord to the skeletal and/or smooth or visceral muscles (such as in the stomach).

5 These muscles are then activated to perform the movements required.

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8
Q

spinal reflex EXTRA

A

-when a spinal reflex occurs, the spinal cord responds to the message directly, before the message is carried further to the brain.
-the immediate response from the spinal cord enables a faster reaction time

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9
Q

spinal reflex EXAMPLE

A

-sensory receptors in sues finger detect the stimulus of the rose thorn.
-message sent via sensory neuron along afferent pathway.
-interneuron in spinal cord detects message and initiates motor responses.
-message sent via motor neuron along efferent pathway to muscles.
-sue withdraws finger from rose.

*** if it was a conscious response THE BRAIN would receive the sensory information.

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10
Q

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

A

-consists of all the nerves outside the CNS that carry messages between the CNS and muscles, organs and glands throughout the body.

  • has two subdivisions:
    • the somatic nervous system
    • the autonomic nervous system

MAIN FUNCTIONS:
- carries info to the CNS from the body’s muscles, organs and glands (about the internal environment) and from the sensory organs (about the external environment)
-carries info from the CNS to the body’s muscles, organs and glands.

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11
Q

PNS
somatic nervous system

A

Comprised of:
-network of nerves within the body, connected to our sensory receptors and skeletal muscles.

Two main functions: (SAME)
-Carries sensory information that is received at sensoryreceptor sites in the body (skin, muscles, joints and tendons) to the CNS.

-Carries and motor information from the CNS. Motor information is carried to skeletal muscles (attached to the skeleton) to control their activity by causing them to contract or relax, when performing voluntary movements.

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12
Q

PNS
autonomic nervous sytem

A
  • performs most of its functions without conscious awareness

Comprised of:
-connections between the CNS to the body’s internal organs (such as the heart, stomach and liver) and glands (such as sweat, salivary and adrenal glands.

Main functions:
-‘autonomous’ self-regulation of the body’s organs, visceral muscles and glands, which occurs without conscious effort(unconsciously) and involuntarily.

For example, Heart beating and digestion

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13
Q

NOTE - ANS

A

muscles involved in activity of internal organs and glands(visceral muscles) have built-in mechanisms for activity and do not depend on voluntary control by the brain.
-HOWEVER the ANS is not completely self-regulating. it is linked to the brains cerebral cortex so we can voluntarily control a few autonomic responses.

e.g slowing breathing.

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14
Q

PNS
autonomic nervous system
- sympathetic nervous system

A

-a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that increases our arousal, readying the body for a quick response.

-is dominant in response to perceived threats and stressful psychological or physiological stimuli.

e.g. pupils dilation to allow light into eye to see better

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15
Q

PNS
autonomic nervous system
- parasympathetic nervous system

A

-a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that controls the body’s internal environment in an autonomous or self-regulated manner.

The parasympathetic nervous system has two main functions:

  1. Maintaining a balanced internal state, otherwise known as homeostasis, including regulation of blood sugar or energy levels, saliva secretion and waste elimination.
  2. Counterbalancing the energising function of the sympathetic nervous system by lowering arousal and restoring the body to a calm state after a threat has passed.
    e.g. decreasing heart rate, constricting pupils of eye
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16
Q

unconscious response

A

any response of our nervous system that does not require awareness.

-lack of awareness, involuntary control, unlearned or reflexitive
-the brain is not involved.
-e.g. blinking, sneezing, spinal reflexes.

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17
Q

conscious response

A
  • and response of the nervous system that requires awareness.
    -awareness, voluntary control, learned and complex. e.g. walking, recalling a fact, jumping.
    -if the brain is receiving info it is a conscious response
    -involves CNS, also involves somatic nervous system. (these interact to enable a conscious response)
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18
Q

conscious response to internal and external stimuli ****

A
  1. the sensory stimulus comes into contact with sensory receptors.
  2. this sensory neural message is transmitted via afferent pathways in the somatic nervous system, and then the spinal cord, to the brain.
  3. the brain processes this sensory info, coordinating and initiating a conscious motor response.
  4. this motor nerual message is transmitted via efferent pathways in the spinal cord and then the somatic nervous system, to skeletal muscles.
  5. the skeletal muscles carry out the conscious motor response to the sensory stimulus.
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19
Q

neurons

A

-an individual nerve cell that is specialised to receive, process and/or transmit information within the nervous system.

neurons are the cells of the nervous system. they communicate electrochemically:
- electrically along the neuron (action potential)
- chemically between neurons(at the synapse)

  • the process of neurons communicating is called neural transmission.
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20
Q

neural transmission

A

an electrical impulse that
occurs when a neuron is
activated or fires

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20
Q

neurons p2

A

-they carry neural messages in the form of action potential to the appropriate part of the nervous system, or interpret the message to enable a response.

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21
Q

neural transmission in 5 steps

A
  1. Action potential travels to the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron.
  2. Release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap
  3. Diffusion of neurotransmitters across the synaptic gap
  4. Binding of neurotransmitters to receptors on the membrane of the post-synaptic neuron.
  5. Activation or inhibition of the post- synaptic neuron.
22
Q

neurotransmitter

A

a chemical produced by neurons that carries messages to other neurons or cells within the nervous system, including muscles, organs and glands

23
Q

excitatory neurotransmitters

A

When they bind with receptors they increase the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential.

Eg. Glutamate
- Important in learning and formation of memories by stimulating changes to the connections between neurons
(neuroplasticity).

24
Q

inhibitory neurotransmitters

A

When they bind with receptors they decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential.

Eg. GABA - Gamma-aminobutyric acid
- Provides a balance to excitatory effects in the brain, ensuring the brain is not overstimulated.
Insufficient GABA is associated with anxiety and hyperactivity.

25
Q

neurotransmitters (excitatory and inhibitory)

A

NEUROTRANSMITTERS
/
EXCITATORY: simulate or activate post-synaptic neurons to perform their functions.
/
for EG, glutamate

NEUROTRANSMITTERS
/
INHIBITORY: block or prevent post-synaptic neurons from firing.
/
for EG, GABA

26
Q

excitatory and inhibitory effects of neurotransmitters

A
  • a neurotransmitter can be categorised by its effects on the post-synaptic neuron. these effects can be:
    excitatory or inhibitory.
27
Q

GLUTAMATE

A
  • Primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS
    -activates and stimulates neural activity in the brain.
    -involved in neural plasticity and the process of learning.
28
Q

GABA

A
  • primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS
    -suppresses or slows down neural activity in the brain.
    -in low levels is associated with anxiety and specific phobias.
29
Q

neuromodulator

A

a subclass of neurotransmitters that alter the strength of neural transmission, by increasing or decreasing the responsiveness of neurons to neurotransmitter signals.

30
Q

neurotransmitter vs neuromodulator p1

A

NEUROTRANSMITTERS

DESCRIPTION - chemicals released by the presynaptic neuron to send signals to the postsynaptic neuron.

ROLE- to transmit chemical signals to the adjacent neuron

SITE OF RELEASE - into the synapse

TARGET - a single post synaptic neuron

SPEED OF ACTION - moderately fast

31
Q

neurotransmitter vs neuromodulator p2

A

NEUROMODULATORS

DESCRIPTION - chemicals release by neurons to alter the effectiveness of neural transmission.

ROLE- to alter the neural transmission of neurons by controlling the synthesis and release of neurotransmitters.

SITE OF RELEASE - outside the synapse into the neural tissue in brain regions.

TARGET - groups of neurons

SPEED OF ACTION - moderately slow and lasts for longer periods.

32
Q

dopamine

A

-A neurotransmitter and a neuromodulator
-Released during enjoyable activities.
-Can act as an excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in movement, mood, attention, cognition and motivation.
-Regulates the reward pathway by reinforcing the neural activity in areas of the brain such as the reward pathway.

33
Q

serotonin

A

-An inhibitory neurotransmitter and a neuromodulator.
-More than 90% of the body’s serotonin is found in the digestive tract as part of the gut-brain axis.
-Regulates mood, digestion, appetite, memory attention and sexuality.
-Impairments in serotonin are linked to anxiety, depression and Parkinson’s disease.

34
Q

transmission of neural info across a synapse

A

IN BOOK

35
Q

synaptic transmission

A

-Each type of neurotransmitter has a chemically distinct shape like that
of a key.

-When neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic gap from the axon terminals in the pre-synaptic neuron, they search for the correctly shaped receptor site on the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron which acts as a lock.

-Like a key in a lock, a neurotransmitter’s shape (key) must precisely match the shape of the receptor site (lock) on the postsynaptic neuron’s dendrites in order to bind (attach) to its receptors.

-The binding ‘unlocks’ the postsynaptic neuron’s response so that the neurotransmitter causes changes to the neuron, resulting in an excitatory or inhibitory effect.

-A postsynaptic neuron may have many different shaped receptor sites on its dendrites and may therefore be able to receive several different neurotransmitters.

36
Q

neurochemicals

A

-Neurochemicals bind to receptor sites and have an effect on the postsynaptic neuron

-The two types studied in this course are:
neurotransmitters and neuromodulators

-Neurotransmitters are chemical molecules that have an effect on one or two postsynaptic neurons.
They enable rapid communication between two neurons across the neural synapse.

-Neuromodulators have a regulatory role in the brain, influencing neural activity on a larger and slower scale than neurotransmitters.

37
Q

what are neurochemicals?

A

-Neurochemicals are chemical substances that transmit neural information within the nervous system.

-Neurochemicals are released by the presynaptic neuron and affect the postsynaptic neuron.

-These chemical substances enable synaptic transmission

38
Q

What are Neurochemicals?

  • The process of synaptic transmission:
A
  1. Neurochemicals are produced in the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron.
  2. Neurochemicals are released from the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic gap.
  3. Neurochemicals bind to receptor sites on the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron.
  4. Neurochemicals affect the postsynaptic neuron, either triggering or inhibiting a
    response.
39
Q

reward pathway

A

a group of structures in the brain that are activated by rewarding or reinforcing stimuli.

40
Q

dopamine is associated with:

A

Thirst-
Dopamine is released when drinking to reinforce hydration.

Hunger-
Dopamine released when eating, reinforcing eating behaviour.

Addiction-
Dopamine is released when completing other pleasurable activities, reinforcing repeating those activities, eg, drug use, gambling etc

41
Q

serotonin pt 2

A

Sleep-
Low serotonin related to restless sleep and nighttime wakefulness.

Impulsivity-
Lower Serotonin levels associated with impulsive behaviour and immediate reward seeking.

Aggression-
Low levels of serotonin affects communication between brain areas associated with emotional regulation.

42
Q

synaptic plasticity

A

-specific changes that occur within the synapse, between neurons.
- results in strengthening or weakening of connections based on activity levels.
- the younger you are the more neural plasticity you have.

43
Q

two important process involved in neural plasticity:

A
  • long-term potentiation
  • long-term depression
44
Q

Long-term potentiation (LTP) when learning

A

–when a neural pathway is activated during a process of learning, the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate is released. through repeated activation of this pathway, it will strengthen. (LTP)

45
Q

long-term potentiation (LTP)

A

-is the relatively permanent strengthening of synaptic connections as a result of repeated activation of a neural pathway.

e.g. taught a new tennis serve, may take some time to learn, each time you practice, you activate the new pathway in your brain associated with this new technique, through LTP this neural pathway becomes stronger making it easier to serve.

46
Q

long-term depression (LTD)

A

-the relatively permanent weaken on synaptic connections as a result of repeated low-level activation.
- helps the brain to adapt or change neural pathways and get rid of or ‘prune’ neural connections that are no longer useful.

e.g. when your tennis coach teaches you a new technique for serving, the neural pathway in your brain associated with the old way you used to serve is repeatedly going to receive a lower level of stimulation over time, and will eventually be used less and less. As you modify your technique, practising the new way and using the old way less and less, both LTD and LTP will be at play, enabling your brain to change and create a more efficient neural pathway.

47
Q

LTP + LTD

A

LTP - strengthening of synaptic connections
+
LTD - weakening of synaptic connections
=
more efficient neural pathways as a result of neural plasticity.

48
Q

sprouting

A

-involves the growth of axon or dendrite fibres at the synapse.

-the creation of new extensions on a neuron to allow it to make new connections with other neurons.
-This occurs through the growth of nerve endings (‘sprouts’) on axons or dendrites, thereby enabling new links to be made, including rerouting of existing connections.

49
Q

sprouting example

A

e.g. after learning about sprouting and storing a memory of it, if you were to look at the associated neurons under a microscope, you
would see changes to their physical appearance, such as the:
* growth of dendritic spines on the post-synaptic neuron, resulting in the dendrites appearing ‘bushier’.
* growth of axon sprouts called filigree appendages on the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron.
* formation of additional synapses where these dendritic spines and filigree appendages meet, referred to as synaptogenesis.

50
Q

synaptogenesis

A

the formation of new synapses
that result from the process of
sprouting.

51
Q

rerouting

A

-involves the formation of new connections between neurons to establish alternate pathways.
-These alternate ‘routes’ may be entirely new neural pathways or connections to other pathways in the brain.
-The rerouting may involve the existing synaptic connections and/or new connections from the sprouts.

52
Q

rerouting example

A

e.g. When you first learned your original serving technique and practised this, a well-established neural pathway or ‘route’ would have been formed and strengthened over time as a result of LTP. When your coach then teaches you the new technique for serving, the original neural pathway may undergo some rerouting
as a result of LTD, and an alternative pathway associated with the new technique would be formed. It is also likely that the process of sprouting will also occur as the neurons in this alternative or ‘rerouted’ pathway would strengthen their connections due to your practising the new serving technique over time.

53
Q

pruning

A

-the elimination of weak, ineffective or unused synapses (and therefore connections to other neurons). Experience determines which synapses will be retained and strengthened and which will be pruned.
-the removal of excess neurons and synaptic connections to increase the efficiency of neural transmissions.
-the process of LTD usually involves pruning.
-Excess dendritic spines and filigree appendages are formed when we learn something and activate this pathway each time we practise the skill or revise the information and form a long-term memory of it. Over time, our brain works out which route(s) is/are most efficient
or optimum so that excess branches can be pruned away once this is established, making
communication between neurons in this pathway more direct and efficient.

psychology 3/4 (13 decks)

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