chapter 1

Question 1

hypothesis

Answer 1

begins with “it is hypothesized that..”
then mentions the independent variable followed by its affects on the dependent variable compared to the control group.

• an idea or explanation for something that is based on known facts but has not yet been proven

Question 2

independent variable
dependent variable

Answer 2

IV- the variable that is being manipulated (controlled, selected or changed) by the researcher.

DV- the variable that is being measured by the researcher.

Question 3

controlled experiment

Answer 3

an experimental investigation of the relationship between one or more independent variables and a dependent variable, in which all other variables are controlled.

Question 4

controlled experiment strengths and limitations

Answer 4

strengths:
-can identify a cause-and-effect relationship between an IV and DV.
-results may be generalised to the population of interest if the study has good validity.
-can be repeated to gather more data

limitations:
-require strictly controlled conditions, which may be difficult to maintain
-participant behaviour may be influenced by the artificial nature of the setting
-external validity may be low if conditions are too artificial.

Question 5

extraneous variable

Answer 5

a variable other than the independent variable that may have an unwanted effect on the dependent variable and results of an investigation.

Question 6

controlled variable

Answer 6

is held constant to ensure that the only influence on the dependent variable is the independent variable.

Question 7

confounding variable

Answer 7

an unwanted variable that has affected the results of an investigation.

Question 8

-population
-sample

Answer 8

population- the wider group of people that a study is investigating.

sample- the smaller group of people selected from the population who will be participants in the investigation. (should be representative of the population)

Question 9

random sampling

Answer 9

selecting participants from the population in a way that means each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected to participate in the study.

Question 10

random sampling strengths and limitations

Answer 10

strengths -
a large enough sample is likely to be representative of the population improving external validity.

limitations-
-small random samples may not be representative of the population, reducing external validity.
-it may be difficult, time-consuming, impossible or unethical to obtain names of all members in the population.

Question 11

stratified sampling

Answer 11

first dividing the population into subgroups, and then randomly selecting participants from each subgroup in the proportions that they appear in the population.

Question 12

stratified sampling strengths and limitations

Answer 12

strengths-
- a large enough stratified sample is likely to be representative of the population, improving external validity.
-important subgroups of a population are ensured fair representation.

limitations-
-it may be difficult to obtain all names from the population.
-it is more time-consuming than using a random sampling technique because of the need to form subgroups and any pretesting required.

Question 13

random allocation

Answer 13

dividing a sample into groups in such a way that each participant has an equal chance of being placed into the experimental group or the control group.

Question 14

between subjects design

Answer 14

is when participants are randomly allocated to either the control
or the experimental condition

Question 15

between subjects design - strengths and limitations

Answer 15

strengths:
* A between subjects design is the most time-efficient design because both groups can be tested at the same time and no
pre-testing is required.
* It has a lower rate of participant withdrawal than a within subjects design because participants only complete one condition.
* There is better control of participant knowledge of the study and there is no effect of prior participation extraneous
variables influencing results compared with a within subjects design.

limitations:
* More participants are needed in a
between subjects design than a within subjects design.
* There is less control over the extraneous variable of participant variables between groups, which may influence results in an unwanted way, lowering validity.

Question 16

Investigation aim
&
Investigation question

Answer 16

I.A- the purpose of a study

I.Q-the question that is to be solved by a study

Question 17

experimental group
&
control group

Answer 17

experimental group: the group that is exposed to the independent variable and receives the experimental treatment.

Control group: the group that forms a baseline level to compare the experimental group with

Question 18

Within subjects design

Answer 18

-an investigation design in which all participants in the sample are involved in both the experimental and control conditions

Question 19

Within subjects design - STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS

Answer 19

strengths:
* In a within-subjects design, there is no extraneous variable of participant variables between groups, improving validity.
* Fewer participants are needed than in a between subjects design.

limitations:
* There is less control over participant knowledge of the study. The extraneous
variable of prior participation in the first
condition may influence their behaviour
while completing the second condition.
* It is more time consuming than a between
subjects design because both conditions cannot be tested at the same time.
* There is a higher rate of participant
withdrawal from the study than in a between subjects design because the DV has to be measured multiple times.

Question 20

mixed design

Answer 20

an investigation design that combines elements of a between subjects design and a within subjects design

Question 21

mixed design - strengths and limitations

Answer 21

strengths:
* Differences in participant variables between groups are controlled in the within subjects design element.
* Can test the effect of multiple independent variables on a dependent variable in one investigation.
* Testing multiple independent variables in
one investigation can be time and cost effective compared to completing two or more separate investigations.

limitations:
* There is a higher rate of participant withdrawal from the study than using a between subjects design alone, which can be detrimental to the internal validity.
* There is less control over participant knowledge of the study. Prior participation in the first condition may influence their behaviour while completing the second condition, than when using a between
subjects design alone.
* There is less control over differences in participant variables between groups in the between subjects element, which may influence results in an unwanted way, lowering validity.

Question 22

case study

Answer 22

a type of investigationof a particular activity, behaviour, event or problem that contains a real or hypothetical situation and includes real-world complexities

CAN :
-be hisotrical, with analysis of causes, consequences and what has been learned from the case
-involve a real situation or a role-play
of an imagined situation where plausible recommendations are to be made.
-be based around problem-solving where developing a new design, methodology or method is needed

Question 23

case study - strengths and limitations

Answer 23

strengths:
* Case studies are useful when a limited
number of participants are available.
* They can be used to study experiences where it would be unethical or impossible to design and conduct a controlled
experiment.
* They can provide rich qualitative data.
* They can act as a basis for further research.

limitations:
* One person or a small group of people cannot be representative of a population, so results from a case study cannot be
generalised to the population, and there is
a low external validity.
* Researcher bias may influence the recording, collation and treatment of data.
* They may not be repeatable to gain more
data or to test reliability of results.
* They are typically time consuming.

Question 24

Classification and identification

Answer 24

a type of investigation that involves arranging phenomena, objects or events into manageable sets, and recognising phenomena as belonging to a particular set or part of a new or unique set.
-Classification and identification can help people in ways such as determining whether their experience is usual or unusual, and can lead to further research into areas of need

Question 25

classification and identification - strengths and limitations

Answer 25

strengths:
* Classifications can allow for a narrowed focus of research.
* People identified as having a similar
classification can feel a sense of
belonging and support.
* Using classifications can allow for efficient processing of large amounts of information.
* Classifications can help make predictions and inferences.

limitations:
* Labelling through identification can lead to stereotyping, prejudice or discrimination.
* Classifications may be based on subjective criteria.
* Large amounts of information are required to create classifications.

Question 26

correlational study

Answer 26

-a type of investigation that involves planned observation and recording of events and behaviours that have not been manipulated or controlled to:
- understand the relationships or associations existing between variables
- to identify which factors may be of greater importance
-to make predictions.

-Correlational studies describe the statistical association and strength of the relationship between two variables; however, the variables are not controlled by the experimenters.
-Therefore, correlational studies cannot find how changing one variable causes a change in another variable, and therefore a cause-and-effect relationship is not found as in controlled experiments.

Question 27

correlational study - strengths and limitations

Answer 27

strengths:
- The direction and strength of a relationship between variables can be determined using a correlational study.
* They can be used to gather initial information that is investigated further or to research behaviours where controlled experiments cannot be used for practical or ethical reasons.
* Observation of real-life behaviours with no manipulation of variables may result in behaviours that are more natural.
* Secondary data can be used.
* If a relationship between two variables is determined, the value of one variable can then be used to predict the value of the other variable.
* They can be used to determine the repeatability, reproducibility and validity of measurements, and they are often high in external validity.
* Extra procedures to control for extraneous variables are not needed.

limitations:
* Correlation does not equal or imply causation, so even if a strong relationship is determined, you cannot assume that one variable causes a change in the other.
* The relationship is bi-directional, and you cannot determine which variable has more influence.
* A large amount of data is required.
* As extraneous variables are not controlled for, you cannot determine that there was not an influence of a third variable, meaning there is a low internal validity.

Question 28

fieldwork

Answer 28

a type of investigation that involves collecting information through
observing and interacting with a selected environment.

-Often the environment is a real-life setting, rather than a controlled laboratory setting, and can be based on enquiry or the investigation of an issue.

Question 29

methods fieldwork may be conducted through:
-Direct observations and sampling

Answer 29

-involves watching and recording participant behaviour, including how they interact with their environment, typically without interference or intervention from the researcher. Qualitative and quantitative data can be collected, and data sampling methods determine the acquisition of a representative sample through:

-time sampling (e.g. only recording behaviour over a particular time interval, such as recording student behaviour for only one minute out of every 10 minutes in class)
-event sampling g (e.g. only recording the behaviour when a specific event occurs, such as recording how many students react
to a teacher asking a question in class)
-situational sampling (e.g. recording the same behaviour over multiple circumstances, such as recording student and teacher interactions in class, in the playground and at the bus bay after school)

Question 30

methods fieldwork may be conducted through:
-Participant observation

Answer 30

• involves the researcher becoming an active participant in the group that is being studied, either in a disguised way, where the researcher is ‘undercover’ posing as a genuine member of the group, or in an overt way, where the researcher’s participation is not concealed, and the participants are aware of the researcher’s identity and presence.
• allows the researcher to guide the direction of the study and prompt in-depth and honest discussions that may have been impossible to access by an outsider.

Question 31

methods fieldwork may be conducted through:
-Interviews, questionnaires, focus groups and yarning circles

Answer 31

-involve self-report methods where the participant responds to questions and statements about the way they think, feel and behave.

-Interviews consist of structured or unstructured questions that are answered verbally by the participant.
-Questionnaires are a set of structured, written, open- or close-ended questions that are answered in a set format.
-Focus groups involve a trained moderator conducting a collective interview of multiple
participants.
-Yarning circles are a culturally informed alternative to focus groups. They are used to explore topics with Indigenous participants through reciprocal dialogue, storytelling and informal conversations to provide an insight into the Indigenous participants’ thoughts and feelings about a topic.

Question 32

fieldwork - strengths and limitations

Answer 32

strengths:
* Information on sensitive topics can
be obtained using fieldwork.
* A large amount of quantitative data can
be gathered in a questionnaire in less time than for a controlled experiment.
* Participant anonymity in questionnaires
can reduce dishonest or biased answers.
* Rich qualitative responses can be obtained in the participant’s own words.
* Natural settings are more likely to show
behaviour that reflects real life.
* If participants are unaware that they are
being studied, there is no change in their
behaviour due to their belief of how they
are expected to behave.
* Fieldwork can be used when it would be
impossible or unethical to investigate by
controlled experimental methods.
* Fieldwork can help to gain insight into
existing data or behaviours that were
not expected.

limitations:
- Observed behaviour is subjective and
open to interpretation and bias by the researcher.
* Fieldwork is prone to social desirability
bias, whereby participants respond in a way that they think they should respond,
particularly if the researcher is present.
* In questionnaires, interviews, focus groups and yarning circles, participant
responses may be inaccurate because
of dishonesty, memory issues, difficulty
communicating, language abilities or
misunderstanding the question.
* Qualitative data can be difficult to
summarise.
* Interviews, focus groups and yarning
circles can be time consuming.
* There is minimal control over
extraneous variables and results may
not be replicable.
* There are ethical concerns with the lack
of informed consent in some cases.

Question 33

literature review

Answer 33

a type of investigation that involves collating and analysing secondary data
findings and viewpoints

Question 34

secondary and primary data

Answer 34

Secondary data:
- data obtained second hand through research conducted by another person
for another purpose.

Primary data:
- data collected through firsthand research
for an intended purpose.

Question 35

literature reviews - strengths and limitations

Answer 35

strengths:
* A literature review can determine what is already known and whether there is a solid foundation of knowledge, based on multiple sources.
* They help introduce existing understanding and context for primary
research.
* They can identify expert researchers in
the field.
* They identify gaps in current understanding and areas for future research.
* They identify methodologies that have
been successful or not successful at
generating significant findings.

limitations:
* Key studies may be missed if the search
criteria or focus of a review is too narrow,
resulting in a review that lacks depth.
* A selection bias in the chosen studies
may result in the review being unrepresentative of current understanding
or provide unbalanced conclusions.
* A literature review may not comment on
the validity of the original research or how
the studies were selected, resulting in the reader being unable to determine the quality of each study within the review, or
the review as a whole.
* Literature reviews may describe multiple
studies but lack a deeper analysis of the
individual studies.
* Only secondary data is acquired.

Question 36

Modelling and simulation

Answer 36

Modelling-
a type of investigation in which a physical or conceptual model is constructed and/or manipulated to simulate a system

Simulation-
a type of investigation that uses a model to replicate and study the behaviour of a system

• Modelling and simulations are useful for studying psychological concepts that cannot logistically or ethically be tested in controlled experiments because of complexity, size, speed, accessibility or danger.

Question 37

modelling and simulation - strengths and limitations

Answer 37

strengths:
* Modelling can allow unobservable events to be visualised.
* Once established, a computer simulation can run quickly with multiple trials in a short amount of time, including events that would usually be long running.
* Modelling and simulation can be used to safely study new devices, therapies or treatments that would be too dangerous or unethical or logistically impossible to conduct in controlled experiments.
* Simulations can allow us to predict future events and ‘what if’ situations.
* Modelling and simulations can test a product before it is created.

limitations:
* A large amount of valid source data may be needed in the creation of a model.
* Computer simulations require precise, consistent statistical analysis in order to function accurately as a valid, repeatable and replicable measure.
* A psychological theory may be well understood but difficult to apply as a working model.
* Simulations are not the real thing and people may respond differently in real life, so simulations involve assumptions about behaviour that lower external validity because of artificiality.
* Complex models and simulations may be expensive

Question 38

Product, process and system development

Answer 38

-a type of investigation in which a product, a process or a system is designed to meet a human need
-These may involve technological applications in addition to scientific knowledge and procedures.

Question 39

ethical concepts

Answer 39

Ethical concepts general ethical considerations used to analyse the ethical and moral aspects of conduct surrounding psychological issues and psychological investigations

-integrity
-justice
-beneficence & non-maleficence
-respect

Question 40

integrity

Answer 40

an ethical concept involving the commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding and the honest reporting of all sources of information and results.

Question 41

justice

Answer 41

an ethical concept involving fair consideration of competing claims, no unfair burden on a particular group, and fair access to benefits of an action

Question 42

Beneficence

Non-maleficence

Answer 42

Beneficence:
an ethical concept involving the commitment to maximising benefits and
minimising risks and harms

Non-maleficence:
an ethical concept involving the avoidance of causing harm

Question 43

respect

Answer 43

an ethicalconcept involving the consideration of the value of living things, giving due regard, and consideration of the capacity of living things to make their own
decisions

Question 44

ethical guidelines

Answer 44

guidelines that ensure the protection and welfare of all participants in research

-confidentiality
-voluntary participation
-informed consent procedure
-withdrawal rights
-use of deception in research
-debriefing

Question 45

confidentiality

Answer 45

an ethical guideline that ensures participants remain anonymous, and their personal information is kept private, protected and secure throughout the study.

Question 46

voluntary participation

Answer 46

an ethical guideline ensuring that each participant freely agrees to participate in a study, with no pressure or coercion.

Question 47

informed consent procedures

Answer 47

an ethical guideline conducted before a study begins – participants agree to participate after they have received all the details of the study, including the purpose, procedures and potential risks.

Question 48

withdrawal rights

Answer 48

an ethical guideline that ensures the participants are free to discontinue their involvement in a study at any point during or after the conclusion of the study, without
receiving any penalty.

Question 49

deception in research

Answer 49

an ethical guideline involving withholding the true nature of the study from participants, when their knowledge of the true purpose may affect their behaviour and subsequent validity of the investigation

Question 50

debriefing

Answer 50

an ethical guideline involving provision of information to participants at the end of the study, including the true aims, results and conclusions, and answering any questions, clarifying misunderstandings or deception, and providing support to ensure no lasting harm

Question 51

Research involving Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples

Answer 51

-NHMRC developed the document ‘Ethical Conduct in Research with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and Communities: Guidelines for Researchers
and Stakeholders’.

-These guidelines define six core values: spirit and integrity, cultural continuity, equity, reciprocity, respect, and responsibility.

-These values ensure that all research conducted with or for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples is conducted
ethically, with the aim of improving the way all researchers work with First Australians developing and/or strengthening their research capabilities, and enhancing their rights as researchers, research partners, collaborators and participants in research.

Question 52

SAFETY IN RESEARCH INVESTIGATIONS
Occupational health and safety (OHS)

Answer 52

Occupational health and safety (OHS):
issues of health, safety and welfare that must be protected in a workplace

Question 53

SAFETY IN RESEARCH INVESTIGATIONS
risk assessment

Answer 53

Risk assessment:
a process involving the consideration, identification and reduction of physical and psychological risk.

Question 54

SAFETY IN RESEARCH INVESTIGATIONS
Safety data sheet (SDS)

Answer 54

Safety data sheet (SDS):
a document that provides all the important information about a substance, such as its
ingredients, precautionary statements and first aid measures