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chapter 4 Flashcards

1
Q

stressor

A

any event that causes stress or is perceived as a threat and a challenge to our ability to cope.

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2
Q

stress is a psychobiological process

A

-psychological, including feelings such as fear, excitement and thoughts such as ‘i cant cope’.

-biological, including physical responses such as increased heart rate and increased muscle tension.

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3
Q

stress

A

is a state of mental, emotional and physiological tension resulting from a stressor.

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4
Q

biological responses & psychological responses

A

B.R- increased heart rate, increased muscle tension.

P.R- feelings and thoughts that are unique to us and subjective, e.g. fear, anxiety, excitment and anticipation.

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5
Q

internal stressor

A

a cause of stress thatoriginates within an individual; can be both
psychological and biological/physiological

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6
Q

biological internal stressors

A

e.g. pain that results from an injury because it is caused by physiological damage to cells in the body, activating pain receptors in the nervous system thus potentially resulting in stress.

  • other examples include illnesses, diseases or a condition that causes unpleasent physical symptoms; these could impair your ability to complete daily tasks, meet deadlines or attend school/work, therefore causing stress.
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7
Q

external stressor

A

a cause of stress that originates from outside an individual, such as an event or environmental extreme.

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8
Q

stressors - internal and external
P1

A

INTERNAL - origionate inside the individual

psychological:
-expectations
-feelings
-mindset

biological:
-pain
-illness
-sleep deprivation

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9
Q

stressors - internal and external
P2

A

EXTERNAL -origionate outside the individual

environmental:
-loud noises
-extreme temperatures

sociocultural:
-daily hassles
-life events
-loss of significant relationships
-catastrophies

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10
Q

acute stress

A

stress that usually occurs because of a sudden threat and only lasts for a short time.

e.g. sitting an exam, starting a new job, giving a speech or work deadline

-this stress can be beneficail because it can help us deal more effectively with the challenge

  • however it can also be more intense and involve life-threatening situations. e.g. victim of assult

-once stressor is removed/delt with, we tend to make a quick recovery (body returns to homeostasis.)

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11
Q

chronic stress

A

-stress that lasts for a long time
-might be due to: social isolation/loneliness, relationship problems, bullying or living in an unsafe environment.
-chronic stress tends to be worse for your body because it can suppress your immune system, upset digestive & reproductive system, increase the risk of heart attack & stroke, and speed up aging process.
-can leave you more vulnerable to anxiety, depression and other mental health problems.

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12
Q

severity of acute and chronic stress

A

Despite being worse for your ongoing physical health and mental wellbeing, chronic stress tends to be less intense or severe than acute stress. However, recovering from chronic stress can take a lot longer, given the ongoing problems it can cause.

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13
Q

acute vs chronic stress

A

acute stress:
- sudden or short term
-more intense or more servere
- can be beneficial and help us deal with challenges

chronic stress:
-ongoing, prolonged or long term
-less intense or less servere
- generally more detrimental to our mental health

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14
Q

fight-or-flight-or-freeze response

A

-an automatic biological response to a perceived stressor that increases our chances of survival in our environment

-. It is an acute stress response and is also considered to be adaptive, in that it minimises possible harm, and enables us to deal with the stressor most effectively by instinctively adopting one of the three options: fight, flight or freeze.

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15
Q

fight, flight or freeze response P2

A

-A FLIGHT RESPONSE, involves evading or escaping the stressor .e.g. running away

-A FIGHT RESPONSE, involves dealing with stressor directly .e.g. hitting intruder

-A FREEZE RESPONSE, involves immobilasation of the body such as minimising movement or vocal sounds to avoid detection .e.g. hiding quietly

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16
Q

fight or flight responses

A

-in fight of flight responses, you experience similar physiological responses such as; increased heart rate, sweaty palms, and dialated pupils as part of an acute stress response.
-this is because the fight or flight response is activated by the sympathetic subdivison of the autonomic nervous system
-autonomic N.S. works unconciously, w/o awareness, to regulate or arousal and internal bodily functions. in the case of a f or f response, our arousal is increased because a threat or stressor has been identified by our N.S. This helps to prepare us to deal with the situation & increase our chances of survival.

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17
Q

freeze response

A

-also thought to have adaptive value
-‘tonic immobility’ (motor and vocal inhibitions) e.g. when attacked animals freeze or play dead.
-freezing is a way for the N.S to prepare immediately shift into fight or flight action
-therefore freezing is not considered to be a passive state but rather a parasympathetic brake on certain systems. e.g. our skeletal muscles will be inactive in order to conserve energy but will remain ready for action by being slightly tense.

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18
Q
  • fight or flight
    VS
  • freeze
A

FIGHT OR FLIGHT
-sympathetic N.S is dominant
-can involve aggressive responses or fleeing the situation
-example: confronting an attacker or running away from them.

FREEZE
-parasympathetic N.S is dominant
-used when fleeing a situation or when aggressive responses are likely to be ineffective.
-example: hiding from an attacker and being as quiet as possible

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19
Q

cortisol

A

a hormone produced by the adrenal glands that regulates a wide range of bodily processes, including metabolism, and is released in response to stress

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20
Q

cortisol P2

A

-cortisol regulates a wide range of processes, throughout the body, including metabolism and the immune response. It is released directly into the bloodstream and transported throughout the body.

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21
Q

the benefits of cortisol in times of chronic stress

A

-boosting our energy levels (and increasing blood glucose levels)
-heightening our alertness, (increasing the brains use of glucose)
-increasing the body’s ability to repair tissue
-diverting energy from non-essential bodily functions (such as digestion, growth and reproduction.)

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22
Q

more on cortisol

A

-despite the benefits of cortisol, high levels of cortisol in our bloodstream for prolonged periods can be detrimental.
-cortisol supresses the immune system, making us more susceptible to colds and contagious illnesses
-when we experience ongoing stress, our risk of cancer and autoimmune dieseases, as well as psychiatric conditions such as anixiety and depression increases.

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23
Q

gut-brain axis (GBA)

A

the connection between the central nervous system and the enteric nervous system, that enables bidirectional communication between the brain and the gastrointestinal tract.

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24
Q

enteric nervous system (ENS)

A

a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system; it consists of nerve cells lining the gastrointestinal tract and controls the digestive system

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25
Q

what is the gut brain axis?

A

refers to the connection between the CNS and the enteric nervous system.

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26
Q

ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:

A
  • the ENS controls the digestive system and is directly connected to the CNS.
  • It is hidden in the walls of the digestive system and is similar in structure and function to the brain.
  • The ENS coordinates the muscle contractions that move material along the digestive tract; it also regulates gastric acid secretion, changes in local blood flow and the release of gut hormones; and it interacts with the immune system.
  • the connections between the enteric nervous system and the brain contain both afferent (sensory) nerves and efferent (motor) nerves.
  • the communication that occurs between the CNS and the ENS happens vis the vagus nerve and gut microbiota.
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27
Q

human N.S

A

CENTRAL N.S.:
- brain
- spinal cord

PERIPHERAL N.S.:
-autonomin n.s
-somatic n.s

AUTONOMIC N.S.:
-parasympathetic n.s.
-sympathetic n.s.
-enteric n.s.

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28
Q

vagus nerve DEFINITION

A

a nerve that connects the brain (central nervous system) to organs within the autonomic nervous system, via nerve fibres that directly link organs such as the lungs, heart, oesophagus and intestinal tract

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29
Q

vagus nerve MORE

A

-it origionates in the brain stem and extends to the colon.
-the vagus nerve controls many crucial bodily functions, including mood, immune response, digestion and heart rate.

e.g. information about the state of the gastrointestinal tract, including pain and discomfort from the gut and feelings of hunger and fullness, can be sent ‘up’ from the gut to the brain. Signals are also sent ‘down’ to the gut from the brain, such as initiating salivation and gastric acid secretion on smelling food and anticipating eating.

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30
Q

gut

A

the gastrointestinal tract or long tube that starts at the mouth and ends at the anus

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31
Q

gut-microbiota DEFINITION

A

the microbe population found in the gut (digestive system)

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32
Q

microbe

A

a microscopic living thing
found in water, soil and the air

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33
Q

GUT MICROBIOTA

A

-gut contains gut microbiota
-These microbes digest the components of our food to provide their own nutrition while also simultaneously providing us with energy and nutrients.
-also involved in the production of some neurotransmitters.
-certain microbiota in the gut are involved in regulating the production, storage and release of neurotransmitters by neurons in the ENS.
-This can have effects within the ENS itself as well as enabling fast signals to be transmitted to the brain via the vagus nerve.

-it is neurotransmitters that allow the bidirectional communication between the CNS and ENS to occur.
-The ENS uses more than 30 different neurotransmitters,

34
Q

emerging research

gut-brain axis

A
  • indicates that neurotransmitters in the gastrointestinal tract affect the neuronal activity and cognitive functions of the brain.
  • certain microbiota in the gut are associated with the production of GABA.
  • The bacterium Bacteroides was found to produce GABA within the ENS.
35
Q

further research
rats

A
  • with rats, the researchers also determined that
    Bacteroides produce GABA in the rat digestive tract, which can increase GABA levels in the brain. More GABA-producing bacteria in the gut were found to reduce learned helplessness.
36
Q

stress, gut microbiota and nervous system functioning

A

More recent research also indicates that chronic stress and increased levels of cortisol can have a profound impact on our gut microbiota as well as our psychological processes and behaviour.

HIGHT LEVELS OF STRESS
+
INCREASED CORTISOL LEVELS
=
CHANGES TO GUT MICROBIOTA, ASSOCIATED WITH ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION.

37
Q

gut microbiota
in summary:

A
  • stress causes changes in gut microbiota and deficiencies in certain bacteria, which have been linked to anxiety and depression.
  • specific gut microbiota associated with stress have been shown to increase anxiety-related behaviours.
  • stress exposure early in life or in adulthood can change an organism’s microbiota composition.
  • the types and variety of microbe populations we have in our gut can shape our stress responsiveness.
  • treatment with healthy microbiota can reduce anxiety-like behaviour and reduce stress responsiveness in humans and mice.
38
Q

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

A

-a biological model of stress that proposes we have a non-specific biological response to stress that occurs in three stages.
-Hans selye contributed to our understanding of how the biological process involved in the stress response could potentially lead to illness and death.
-after research with rats and exposing them to different stressors, selye realised that the rats all appeared to go through the same physiological processes.
-he identified a predictable pattern (three phases) of physiological responses called GAS.

39
Q

GAS

he emphasised two elements when describing this syndrome:

A

1- it’s non-specific (it’s the same irrespective of the type of stressor the organism is exposed to)
2- it’s identical within all members of a species, in this case rats.

40
Q

3 stages of the GAS

A
  • STAGE 1 - alarm reaction (the first stage of the GAS, in which we become aware of the stressor; it consists of two phases - shock and counter shock)

-STAGE 2 - resistance

-STAGE 3 - exhaustion

41
Q

STAGE 1 - ALARM REACTION
shock

A
  • shock is the first phase of the alarm reaction stage of the GAS, in which the body’s ability to deal with the stressor falls below normal

-this is an acute stress response
-this is when we first become aware of the of the stressor and body responds to immediate threat or challenge.
-this phase is associated with decreased muscle tone, body temperature and blood sugar levels.

42
Q

STAGE 1 : ALARM REACTION
countershock

A
  • countershock is the second phase of the alarm reaction stage of the GAS, in which the body’s ability to deal with the stressor rises above normal.
    -(body attempts to compensate for the acute stress response)

-this is helped by the release of adrenaline and cortisol as well as the activation of the flight-fight-freeze response to deal with stressor.
-physiological changes in this phase include: increases in muscle tension, heart rate, breathing rate, blood glucose and temperature.

43
Q

alarm reaction

A

alarm reaction stage does not usually last long; sometimes a few seconds, sometimes longer.

44
Q

STAGE 2 : RESISTENCE

A

-the second stage of the GAS,, in which the stressor persists, and the body’s resources are maximised to cope and adapt over time.

-cortisol levels are at their highest, which helps repair damage and maximises the body’s resources to cope/adapt.
-the body can adapt to strains or demands of the environment for some time, but not indefinitely

-continuing high levels of cortisol interferes with the body’s ability to fight disease by depressing the immune system and eventually the body begins to show physiological signs of wear & tear. e.g. cold/flu, sore throat, headaches.

45
Q

STAGE 3: EXHAUSTION

A
  • the third stage of the GAS, in which the continued depletion of energy stores and high levels of hormones such as cortisol, decrease resistance to the stressor and impair the immune system.
  • body may become weak, how low resistance to physical and psychological illnesses.
    -excess cortisol in the bloodstream over a long time impairs the immune system and gut function.
    -become more susceptible to a variety of physical & pyschological conditions such as; infection, stomach ulcers, sleep disturbances, irritability, fatigue, anxiety and depression.
46
Q

look at GAS graph

A
47
Q

STAGE 1:
- shock

(biological symptoms and resistence to the stressor)

A

BIOLOGICAL SYMPTOMS:
- acute stress response
- loss of muscular tone, lowering of body temperature & blood pressure.

RESISTENCE TO STRESSOR:
- below normal

48
Q

STAGE 1:
- countershock

(biological symptoms and resistence to the stressor)

A

BIOLOGICAL SYMPTOMS:
- flight-or-fight-or-freeze response occurs to deal with the stressor
- adrenaline and cortisol initially released
- muscle tense, heart rate and breathing rate increase, pupils dilate

RESISTENCE TO STRESSOR:
- initially below, but rises above normal

49
Q

STAGE 2:

(biological symptoms and resistence to the stressor)

A

BIOLOGICAL SYMPTOMS:
- cortisol levels are at their highest
-increased energy because of higher blood sugar levels.
- immune system functioning impaired
- physical signs of wear and tear begin to appear, such as cold and flu symptoms, headaches and lethargy

RESISTENCE TO STRESSOR:
- well above normal
- begining to drop

50
Q

STAGE 3:

(biological symptoms and resistence to the stressor)

A

BIOLOGICAL SYMPTOMS:
- energy stores depleted
- increased susceptibility to several physical conditions such as infection, stomach ulcers, sleep disturbances and fatigue.

RESISTENCE TO STRESSOR:
- well below normal

51
Q

strengths of the GAS model

A

-the model suggests a predictable pattern of responses that can easily be tested in a labratory
- It identifies various biological processes that occur as a part of the stress response, such as hormone secretion and immune system depletion.
- It is one of the first theories to suggest that stress can weaken the body’s resistance to illness.
- There is research and evidence to suggest that the three stages of GAS exist and that the body’s nonspecific response to a stressor is a physiological reality (at least in rats)

52
Q

limitations of the GAS model

A
  • Humans and rats are physiologically different.
    For example, human stress responses tend to be more complex and variable. Therefore, Selye’s GAS model
    cannot be simply generalised to humans
  • It does not acknowledge the psychological or cognitive processing involved in the human stress response, which can affect how much an individual experiences the stress response.
  • It does not account for individual differences
    in stress responses. For example, many different types of disorders are associated with high stress levels, such as hypertension (high blood pressure), post-traumatic stress disorder and major depression.
53
Q

appraisal

A

-the process of categorising an event on the basis of its perceived significance and how it may affect our wellbeing.
-Whether something produces stress depends on the individual’s appraisal of the situation and their coping skills.

54
Q

transactional model of stress and coping

A

-a model that suggests a stress response is only elicited if an event is perceived to exceed our ability to cope and is based on our appraisal of the situation.

-The person will assess the significance of an event and whether they can cope with it.
-This model was developed by Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman.

55
Q

PRIMARY APPRAISAL

A

-when an individual determines whether a situation or event is significant to them and stressful or not.
-if deemed NOT STRESSFUL, it will be categorised as benign/positive or irrelevant.

56
Q

PRIMARY APPRAISAL
benign/positive

A

describes a situation or event that is perceived as having a positive outcome for an individual, i.e. it either maintains (benign) or enhances their wellbeing (positive).

If the individual has deemed the event to fit into one of these categories, they will not need to perform any further appraisal. This is because they do not need to assess their coping resources to deal with the stressor.

57
Q

PRIMARY APPRAISAL
irrelavent

A

describes a situation or event that has no implications for an individual’s wellbeing because nothing will be gained or lost, or they are not invested in the situation.

If the individual has deemed the event to fit into one of these categories, they will not need to perform any further appraisal. This is because they do not need to assess their coping resources to deal with the stressor.

58
Q

PRIMARY APPRAISAL P2

A

If the event is deemed to be stressful, it will be categorised as a threat, harm/loss or challenge:

THREAT- the anticipated harm/loss in the future because of an event.

HARM/LOSS- the damage to the individual that has already occurred as a result of a stressor.

CHALLENGE- the perceived
potential for personal gain or growth from an event.

-If an event has been established as stressful, something must be done to manage the situation and so secondary appraisal occurs.

59
Q

SECONDARY APPRAISAL

A

-when anindividual considers the available
resources and their own coping strategies, to decide the best way of dealing with a stressor.

-coping resources are inadequete = stress is heightened
-coping resources are adequete = stress is minimised/managed

60
Q

explainitory power of the transactional model

A

-Lazarus and Folkman’s model was one of the first to explain stress as a psychological process.
-more positive veiw of stress (suggests we can control and manage it on our own terms)

61
Q

the transactional model of stress and coping
STRENGTHS

A

-aknowledges psychological causes of stress.
-emphasises personal nature & individuality of the stress response.
-suggests the individual has an active role in their own stress response (therefore can learn to respond and manage it)
-model aknowledges that stressors & circumstances can change over time and our thinking about a stressor & our response to it can also change.

62
Q

the transactional model of stress and coping
LIMITATIONS

A

-difficult to test because of the subjective nature of individual responses to stress.
-individuals may not be conciously aware of what is causing them stress or thought processes when experiencing stress.
-doesnt include biological factors.
-doesnt allow for individual variation in progression through it’s stages.

63
Q

coping

A

-Coping all the things we do to manage and reduce the stress we experience.
-an attempt to manage the demands of a stressor in an effective way.

64
Q

coping stratergy

A

-a method that we use to manage or reduce the stress produced by a stressor.
-whether a stratergy works or not is determined by 2 factors:
-coping flexibility
-context-specific effectiveness

65
Q
  1. COPING FLEXIBILITY
A

-the ability to modify our coping strategies to adapt and meet the demands of different stressful situations.
-The coping flexibility hypothesis dictates that richer coping flexibility produces more adaptive outcomes caused by stress responses, such as reduced psychological and physical dysfunction.

66
Q

coping flexibility includes being able to:

A
  • recognise whether the use of a coping strategy is appropriate for a specific situation.
  • select a coping strategy that suits the circumstances of the situation.
  • recognise when the coping strategy being used is ineffective
  • discontinue using an ineffective coping strategy and implement an alternative, more effective coping strategy.
67
Q

individuals with high coping flexibility

A

-quickly recognise and adjust their coping strategies if they are ineffective.
-These individuals tend to use a wider variety of coping strategies across situations, and match the strategies to the demands of the situation.

68
Q

individuals with low coping flexibility

A

-tend to rely on the same, limited coping strategies across different situations, and persist with them, even if they are ineffective.
-Essentially, these individuals are not flexible and are predictable when dealing with stress.

69
Q
  1. CONTEXT-SPECIFIC EFFECTIVENESS
A

-when a coping strategy matches or is appropriate to the stressful situation.
-for a coping strategy to be successful, it must match the specific demands of the stressor and be suited to the relevant personal characteristics of the individual (such as their personality, knowledge or skills)

70
Q

Context-specific
effectiveness
+
Coping flexibility
=

A

Context-specific
effectiveness:
-when a coping strategy matches or is appropriate to the stressful situation.

+

Coping flexibility:
-the ability to modify coping strategies to meet the demands of different stressful situations.

=

Our ability to cope with stresss and the success of the strategies we use is influenced by a combination of these two factors.

71
Q

Approach and avoidance strategies

A

-The strategies people use to cope with difficult or stressful circumstances in their lives.
-The aim of both approach and avoidance strategies is to reduce stress levels and increase the ability to cope.

APPROACH STRATERGIES: involve confronting the stressor driectly

AVOIDENCE STRATRGIES: involve evading a stressor and dealing with it indirectly

72
Q

APPROACH STRATERGY

A

-an effort to confront a stressor and deal directly with it and its effects.
-Activity is focused towards the stressor, its causes and a solution that will address the underlying problem, issue or concern and minimise or eliminate its impact.
-involves engagement with the stressor

73
Q

approach stratergies
-examples

A
  • seeking advice from an expert such as a counsellor.
  • talking through your problems with a friend or family member.
  • accepting responsibility for a problem or reframing a situation to recognise the positive aspects rather than focusing on the negative aspects.
  • developing a plan to increase your sense of control around an issue.
74
Q

benefits and linitations of the approach stratergy

A

BENEFITS:
* Approach strategies are generally considered to be more adaptive and effective than avoidance strategies.
* People who rely more on approach strategies to cope with a stressor tend to experience fewer psychological symptoms and can function more effectively than people who rely more on avoidance strategies.

LIMITATIONS:
* Initially or in the short term, approach strategies may increase stress levels while the individual is directly engaged with the stressor and its causes.
* An approach strategy may require a lot of the individual’s energy and focus to deal with the stressor, which means they might neglect other aspects of their lives.

75
Q

AVOIDANCE STRATERGY

A

-an effort to avoid a stressor and not deal directly with it and its effects.
-maladaptive (involve changing your behaviour to avoid thinking about, feeling or doing difficult things.)
-tend to take focus away from the stressor
-usually temporalily beneficial because it relieves stress in the short term.
-However, in the long term the source of the stress will still be there, and using avoidance may make your situation worse.

76
Q

avoidance stratergy examples

A
  • procrastination
  • napping or oversleeping
  • substance use or abuse
  • denial
  • use of distractions such as television or computer
    games.
77
Q

benefits and limitations of avoidance stratergy

A

BENEFITS:
* avoidance may be considered an adaptive strategy.
* allows you to conserve energy to focus on other stressors that can be changed.
* Disengagement might be appropriate in a situation where nothing can be done.
* It can be more effective in coping with stress in the short term.
*can provide ‘time out’ from a stressor

LIMITATIONS:
* tend to be maladaptive.
* tends to be associated with negative
consequences, e.g. increased vulnerability
to mental health problems and stress-related physical problems.
* can also contribute to other problems, e.g.
delinquency, socially inappropriate behaviours
and substance use.
* unhelpful in the long term

78
Q

exercise as an avoidance stratergy

A

-can relieve stress
-can reduce the risk of serious diseases or illnesses, including those associated with chronic stress (cardiovacular disease, stroke and cancer)

79
Q

benefits of exercise as an avoidance stratergy

A

-uses up stress hormones and helps the body return to normal functioning sooner.
-can help ‘work out’ tension that has built up in the muscles.
-It increases the efficiency of the cardiovascular system and increases strength, flexibility and stamina for encountering future stressors.
-short term psychological benefits during or immediately after exercising.
-can provide an opportunity for distraction/’time out’ from stressor.
-long term psychosocial benefits from exercising with others.

80
Q

limitations of exercise as an avoidance stratergy

A

-Despite these benefits, in most cases exercise would be considered an avoidance strategy because it does not directly deal with the stressor.
-unless the stressor has something to do with exercise (e.g. losing weight) - in these cases it would be an approach stratergy.

psychology 3/4 (9 decks)

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