Chapter 6 Flashcards
Primatology
The branch of science that focuses on the study of primate behavior
What major conclusion did the author come to about primate behavior from her experience watching the responses of vervets and patas monkeys?
The implication is clear: these monkeys, our
close relatives, with their highly developed intelligence and ability to learn, do assess key features of their habitat and
use this information to alter their behavior and maximize their chance of escape.
Primatologists.
people, like myself, who study primates
solitary
lives alone
foraging
the act of finding and handling food
feeding
the act of consuming food
omnivores
who ingest a variety of foods in order to obtain appropriate levels of protein, carbohydrates, fats, and fluids, but one
type of food often makes up the majority of each species’ diet.
What are some major reasons people study primates?
cognitive principles involved in deceptive or cooperative behavior, principles of communication, conservation issues, and social complexity and ecological and behavioral
variation.
abundance
how much is available in a given area
distribution
how it is spread out
basal metabolic rate
energy is used to maintain the body while at rest. It increases more slowly than body size.
insects
high-quality food filled with protein and calories
Most primates do not rely on insects for their entire diet
Why aren’t all primates insectivores?
larger primates simply cannot capture and consume enough insects every day to survive.
What does it mean if a primate has a basal metabolic rate?
Heavier animals must consume
absolutely more food, but they have a slower metabolism so they need fewer calories per unit of body weight.
Do tarsiers need to consume more food?
No, because of their small size, but they convert food very quickly
medium-size primates are
highly frugivorous
Smaller frugivores vs larger frugivores
Smaller frugivores tend to supplement
with insects, while larger frugivores tend to supplement with leaves.
Food abundance
how much food is available in a given area
Plentiful vs scarce
How does food abundance and distribution of food affect primates?
It makes primates determine how far they need to travel in search of food and how much they must compete to obtain it
Distribution
how food is spread out.
How is food distributed?
uniformly, clumps, or randomly
Higher quality foods like fruit and insects are
less abundant and have patchier distributions than lower quality food
Higher quality food is harder to find
Leaves are abundant or no?
Yes, and uniformly distributed
Foliovres regarding food
They do not have to travel far nor do they burn calories searching for food since leaves are everywhere
Fruit abundance
scarce and clumped
Usually one fruit tree is surrounded by many trees without fruit
Frugivores have to travel farther distances in search of food
Insect abundance
insects are scarce, and due to their mobile nature, most
are randomly distributed. This combination makes it impossible for larger primates to rely on insects for a significant part of their diet.
Primate preferences
specific types of food may cause it to exist in abundance or
the distribution that is different than the general patterns
What may look abundant to us may be scarce for a primate depending on what they’re looking for
Based on what you learned here, describe what kinds of diets tend to cause primates to expend a great deal of energy looking for food? What kinds of diets tend to cause primates to expend less energy?
Fruits and insects=more energy
Leaves=less energy
Direct competition between primates
fighting over resources that are large and worth defending
indirect competition
eating food before another individual gets to it
This happens over resources that are small or not worth defending
like grasshoppers, that are eaten quickly
Who do primates engage with in direct or indirect competition with?
Members of their own group or other members of other groups
home range
is the area over which the group moves in search of food
How does the abundance of food determine different groups?
It depends on the amount of how much food is there which can increase or decrease competition between groups
territory
Groups that defend the boundary of their home range (which is their territory)
Home-range expansion
by fighting between groups as members attempt to keep intruders away from valuable, scarce food resources.
food abundance vs food distribution interactions
food abundance determines interactions between groups,
Food distribution determines the interactions between individuals within a group
day length
the distance a group must travel in a single day in search of food.
dominance hierarchy
reflects the place of each individual in the group in comparison to others
rank
dominance hierarchies are uncommon among folivores.
primate community
All living organisms that occur in an area that includes primates.
conspecifics
members of the same species
sympatric
When two species or populations) occupy the same geographic area
allopatric
geographic ranges do not overlap
competitive exclusion principle
two species that compete for the exact same
resources cannot coexist
What happens when there’s competition between two species?
large- bodied species superses the small-bodied species unless the smaller species outnumber the larger species
niche
The role of a species in its environment; how it meets its needs for food, shelter, etc
a niche cannot seek to meet their needs for food and shelter in the exact same way
niche partitioning
all species that coexist in the same environment use the environment to fulfill its needs in different ways in comparison to another species who uses the same environment
vertebrates
animals with
an internal spinal column or backbone
Primate communities have
primates, food, and predators
Do all primates eat insects?
yes which means primates can also be predatators in that regard
what does predation by primates is opportunistic mean?
primates hunt when they prey happens to be at the right place at the right time
deliberate predators
some even work together to increase their chances of success
they seek it out on purpose rather than waiting for their prey
Cooperative hunting
observed in white-faced capuchins and some chimpanzee populations
Also the prey is shared among the group
carnivores
animals whose diet consistsprimarilyofanimaltissue
Describe the two ways primates can be predators.
opportunistic vs deliberate predators
What are so ways primates avoid predators?
crypsis
The ability to avoid detection by other organisms
Nocturnal primates social structure
small and solitary or live in very small group
How does the slow loris of Southeast Asia protect itself?
it’s nocturnal and solitary so that it avoids predatation
If detected, it will attempt to escape by releasing its grip and falling off the branch or biting in defense.
Only venomous primate (combines oil from arm gland with saliva)
Describe threats to primate populations
habitat destruction and hunting
Palm oil (affects orangutans)
Dispersal
some individuals who leave the group
Primate social structure
Most live in groups that vary in size, composition, and cohesiveness
fission-fusion
groups break up and reunite based on differences in food availability throughout the year
Why do primates live in groups?
primates live in groups when the benefits of feeding competition and/or predation avoidance exceed the costs
It’s better to stay as a group than not
Fitness
an individual’s reproductive success relative to that of other individuals
Interbirth intervals
the average length of time between one birth and the next
Larger vs smaller groups
Larger groups=more individuals competing for the same resource (this can increase aggression but when hierarchy is established than aggression is decreased when everyone knows their place)
How do dominants benefit more than submissives?
Dominants at the top of the social chain have more access to food than submissive ones do. They eat more nutrients=better health and fitness (better reproductive succcess).
They weigh more, reproduce earlier and more often in comparison to subordinates
Why do subordinates stay when they have less access to resources?
larger groups are more successful in competition with other groups
Overall, females in larger groups have shorter interbirth intervals and better survival rates
Vigilance
watchful behavior to detect potential danger
How is mortality affected by group size?
Large groups is because of predation (more obvious to predators because of their large numbers). However, large groups can warn others through alarm calling and mobbing
Small groups
Why is vigilance important?
It warns the group that a predator is nearby. Even if others lose out on sleeping or eating that is less important than being attacked by a predator which the protection of a group does
What is the purpose of alarm calls?
(1) to alert members of the group to the presence of a predator or 2) to alert the predator that it has been detected.
mobbing
the act of cooperatively attacking or harassing a predator
Mobbing involves two or more individuals making repeated advances on a predator. This helps drive off or distract the predator long enough for others to escape
mobbing often occurs as the predator is approaching, in some cases, it occurs after a predator has attacked and escalates to a counter-attack
What predators do primates mob off?
chimpanzees, leopards, and eagles, but snakes are the most common targets
polyspecific associations
Associations between two or more different species involving behavioral changes by at least one of the associated species.
some associations are short in duration, others can be semi-permanent. In these cases, species are found more often in association than not
So why do some primates form associations with other species instead of increasing the size of their own group?
Although the specific costs and benefits of polyspecific associations differ in each case, in general, species that form these associations gain foraging or anti-predator benefits while avoiding within-group competition for food that occurs in a larger group of conspecifics
Helps them avoid competition within a group
Sometimes help species gain access to a food resource that is otherwise inaccessible
What other cases of polyspecific associations help species survival?
predator avoidance. One species may be particularly good at detecting a specific type of predator and may alert the other species to its presence
Which gender usually leaves the group?
males are the dispersing sex because the benefits of dispersal, including increased access to mates and reduced competition from other males, outweigh the costs
philopatric
remaining in the group of their birth.
Usually females stay. This allows them to maintain strong social alliances so that they can compete successfully against other groups for food.
Can there be variations or exceptions to the dispersal rule?
Yes
Which species’ females leave the group?
capuchins and baboons
chimpanzees and muriquis
What happens when someone enters a new group?
Typically, it’s hard because they have to work their way up the totem pole and they face aggression from the same gender who view the new members as threats
receptive
ready to mate
natal group
the group you were born in
reproductive success
one’s genetic contribution to future generations measured through number of offspring produced.
inbreeding
mating with close relatives
inbreeding depression
reduced fitness of the population
natal dispersal
dispersal out of the group of one’s birth
Why do females disperse vs males?
Females->abduction of juvenile females by adult males. It’s better when males stay because hunting cooperatively and patrolling the community boundary together
Males->enter a group with fewer same-sex individuals, so as to avoid competition for mates
Both disperse to avoid inbreeding
How do female and male strategies differ when it comes to reproduction?
They differ with regard to parental investment and sexual selection strategies. Female strategies, on the one hand, focus on obtaining the food necessary to sustain a pregnancy and choosing the best males to father offspring. Male strategies, on the other hand, focus on obtaining access to receptive females.
Why do primate reproductive strategies exist?
evolved to maximize individual reproductive success.
Parental Investment
any time or energy a parent devotes to the current offspring that enhances its survival
Social Learning
behavior learned by observing and imitating others
Infanticide
killing of infants of one’s own species
paternity certainty
confidence that he is the father, is more likely to invest in an offspring than a male who does not because any investment in the offspring may increase his own reproductive success
What is a female’s goal during reproduction?
Little investment=give birth to many offspring, but very few if any) of them will survive
Too much investment=ensures the survival of the offspring but will not be able to produce very many during her lifetime
Ideal=female must invest just long enough to ensure the greatest number of
offspring survive to reproduce to maximize her reproductive success
maternal behavior is not purely instinctual
Sexual selection
selection for traits that maximize mating success, comes in two forms
Intrasexual selection
selection for traits that enhance the ability of members of one sex to compete amongst themselves
Males fight with each other for a female
Intra=same sex
Intersexual selection
selection for traits that enhance the ability of one sex to attract the other
Males show off to the female to attract her
Inter=between sexes
operational sex ratio
The ratio of sexually active or available) males to sexually active or available) females
Receptive females are a scarce resource over which males compete
sexual dimorphism
males vs females look different
coalitions
temporary alliances to cooperate in an effort to enhance their competitive ability
Sperm competition
multiple males mate
with the same female in
relatively close succession
secondary sexual characteristics
traits associated with sexual maturity
reproductive suppression
mechanisms differ across species but generally involve the prevention of reproduction by subordinate females through physiological and/or behavioral means
indirect fitness
females genes get passed down through siblings
direct fitness
she had produced her own offspring
paternity confusion
females actively choose to mate with multiple males multiple males to make them think they are possibly the father to avoid infantcide
social system
typical number of males and females of all age classes that live together
mating system
males and females mate
How are social systems and mating systems different?
Two species can have the same social system but a different mating system and vice versa.
polygyny
one male mating with multiple females
monogamous
one male and female
sexual monomorphism
males and females are similar in body size and often look alike
This happens when there’s no same-sex competition (every male gets a mate through monogamy)
polygamy
multiple males mate with multiple females
polyandry
one female mating with multiple males
What does the author mean when she says “We can understand primate social and mating systems by thinking of layers of a map.”
First females access food and they protect each other in groups. Then, males access females by mapping onto them
Jane goodall
Discovered chimpanzees eating meat and make tools for termite mounds
Dian Fossey
Gorillas
Birute Galdikas
Orangutans
What conditions make it likely that females will live in groups?
When females live together, either because their food is abundant in the case of folivores) or because their food is distributed in large patches that are worth defending in the case of frugivores), males have the opportunity to monopolize multiple females.
When females do live in groups, what mating systems tend to develop?
Small groups=single male monopolizing an entire female group (Mountain gorillas, hanuman langurs, red howler monkeys, and patas monkeys). This creates intense sexual competition because not all males have mates
multiple male and female groups=polygamy, they often form a dominance hierarchy that determines their priority of access to females in the group
Which species are likely to exhibit sexual dimorphism?
Mountain gorillas, hanuman langurs, red howler monkeys, and patas monkeys because they are in a group as a single male competing for females which mean only one male out of all the males will get access to the female group
What kind of mating group is formed when a male cannot monopolize a single female group?
The group consists of many females that may be spread out over a wide area. Males do compete with each other but it’s not as extreme as polygynous competition. Also, males end up living together but they each don’t have the same access to females because of the dominance hierarchy that is formed.
Olive baboons, ring-tailed lemurs, and squirrel monkeys
In what kinds of situation is it important for primates to communicate?
When a predator is nearby
What are the four types of primate communication?
vocal, visual, olfactory, and tactile
What might determine what form of communication might be more prevalent in a primate species?
Diurnal species tend to rely more heavily on visual and vocal forms of communication.
Nocturnal species rely on more olfactory communication
Semantic Communication
involves the systematic use of signals to refer to objects in the environment
What are vocalizations used for?
Claim and maintain a territory, make contact with other group members, communicate danger or threats, etc
Why do some monkeys, such as Diana monkeys, alarm call when they spot leopards, but not chimpanzees?
Diana monkeys alarm call to tell the predator that the predator has been spotted. However, chimpanzees stay silent to avoid leopards knowing about their location
piloerection
raising one’s hair or fur, is used in aggressive interactions to make an individual appear larger than it actually is.
sexual swelling
size, shape, and, often, color of their hindquarters change to signal they’re receptive for mating
What types of visual communication exist in primates?
Showcasing sexual receptivity, anxiety through baring teeth, etc
species recognition
ability to
distinguish conspecifics from other species
Species with more complex facial color patterns tend to be those that are sympatric with a larger number of other primate species to reduce mating with other species
Anogenital
females release chemicals from their genital area
Urine washing
which an individual urinates on its hands and feet and then uses them to spread urine all over its body to communicate messages
Stinky tail displays
male ring-tailed lemurs rub their tails with the scent from glands on their wrists and chests during aggressive interactions
Substrate marking
Both sexes use their anogenital scent glands to mark substrates like saplings, fallen trees, or tree trunks)
Lemurs have special spurs on their wrists to scrape trees and embed their own scent.
Why do primatologists believe the purpose of substrate marking is to reinforce territorial boundaries?
Because substrate marking behavior occurs where the ranges of two groups overlap, and increases during the mating season, the primary function is believed to reinforce territorial boundaries
affiliative
non-aggressive behavior
What roles can grooming play in primate groups?
Not only does grooming serve to clean the skin and fur, removing parasites and debris, but it is an important affiliative non-aggressive) behavior that helps reinforce social bonds, repair relationships, and cement alliances.
Creates social integration
What is tactile contact used for regarding primates?
used to comfort and reassure, is part of courtship and mating, and is used to establish dominance and alliances
culture
transmission of behavior from one generation to the next through social learning
cultural tradition
distinctive pattern of behavior shared by multiple individuals in a social group that persists over time
If an anthropologist says non-human primates have no culture, how, would you guess do they define culture?
Shared ideology
describes how groups of chimpanzees use twigs in different ways to gather food. Why is this considered a cultural tradition?
Because one group of chimpanzees uses twigs differently in comparison to another group of chimpanzees. Hence we can conclude social learning taking place.
What evidence is there for cultural transmission among groups of chimpanzees?
Immigrants from one group can teach “diferent cultural practices” to another group and vice versa
How do the “sweet potato” and “apple” experiments provide evidence of cultural transmission?
because behavior is taught not innate
What can we learn by studying primate behavior?
