chapter 6

Question 1

Emotional regulation (effortful control)

Answer 1

-Ability to control when and how emotions are expressed
-Critically important psychological task between 3 and 5 years of age
-Self-concept developed within this process.


Goal is regulation, not removal.
–Emotional intelligence (emotional healthy people acknowledge other people’s emotions as well as their own, expressing them appropriately)

Question 2

Emotional regulation and cognitive maturation develop

Answer 2

Emotional regulation and cognitive maturation develop together, each enabling the other to advance.
-Maturation matters
-Learning matters
-Culture matters

Question 3

Initiative versus guilt

Answer 3

Initiative versus guilt
-Erikson’s third psychosocial crisis
-Children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilty when they do not succeed at them.
-Protective optimism encourages trying new things.
-Optimistic self-concept protects young children from guilt and shame and encourages learning.

initiative- saying something new, beginning a project, expressing an idea
-depending on what happens next, children feel proud or guilty

Question 4

Emotional connections

Neurological advances
Impediments to growth

Answer 4

Emotional connections

Neurological advances
-Growth of prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus
-Sufficient sleep
-Reciprocity between child and significant adults

Impediments to growth
-Adverse childhood experiences

Question 5

Motivation

Answer 5

Motivation
-Involves impulse that propels someone to act.
-Comes either from a person’s own desires or from the social context.

-Intrinsic motivation
-Extrinsic motivation
-Spontaneous joy
-Imaginary friends

Question 6

intrinsic motivation

Answer 6

arises from within, advances creativity; innovation and emotional wellbeing

Question 7

extrinsic motivation

Answer 7

external praise, or reward, can stop once it becomes a habit
ex: brushing teeth

Question 8

spontaneous joy

Answer 8

intrinsic motivation is evident when children explore for the sheer joy of it. exaggerated praise is not good

Question 9

imaginary friends

Answer 9

considered a sign of creativity

Question 10

Play

Answer 10

Play
–Timeless, universal
–Most productive and enjoyable activity that children undertake

Historical context
-Mildred Parten (1932)
—Play is intrinsic; five stages of increasingly advanced social play.

Currently
-Essential or merely fun?
-Higher level of play leads to more mature social skills.

Question 11

five stages of play

Answer 11

1. solitary-> play alone
2. onlooker->a child watches other children play
3. parallel-> children play similar but not together
4. associate-> children interact, but do not take turns
5. cooperative-> children play together, take turns

Question 12

Screen time

Answer 12

Screen time

Today, less active play and more screen time
-Reduction in conversation, imagination, and exercise
-Links to obesity, emotional immaturity, and less intellectual growth

COVID-19
-Less physical activity, less social development, more parental stress
-More screen time occurs than recommended

-no more than 1 hr

Question 13

Social play

Answer 13

Social play
-From age 2 to 6, most children learn how to join peer group, manage conflict, take turns, find friends, and more.
-Children learn emotional regulation, empathy, and cultural understanding.
-Play with peers advances social understanding.

-to learn social skills, play with peers advances social understanding

Question 14

Technology

Answer 14

Technology
-Digital play can advance development if a child is with other children.
-Various digital tools are used as part of social interaction.

Question 15

Rough-and-tumble play

Answer 15

Rough-and-tumble play
–Mimics aggression through wrestling, chasing, or hitting with no intention to harm.
–Is particularly common among young males.
–Advances children’s social understanding
–May positively affect limbic system connection with the prefrontal cortex.

Question 16

Sociodramatic play

Answer 16

-Allows children to act out various roles and themes in stories that they create.
-Sociodramatic play enables children to:
–Explore and rehearse the social roles.
–Test their ability to explain.
–Practice regulating their emotions.
–Develop a self-concept.

Question 17

Styles of caregiving

Baumrind’s dimensions and styles

Answer 17

Styles of caregiving
-Parenting styles vary within nations, ethnic groups, neighborhoods—even families.

Baumrind’s dimensions and styles
-Parents differ on four important dimensions.
1.Expressions of warmth
2. Strategies for discipline
3.Communication
4.Expectations for maturity

On the basis of these dimensions, three parenting styles were identified. A fourth style was suggested by other researchers.

Question 18

Baumrind’s styles of caregiving

Answer 18

Baumrind’s styles of caregiving

-Authoritarian parenting: high behavioral standards, strict punishment of misconduct, and little communication (parents word is law, rarely talk about feeling)

-Permissive parenting: high nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control (make few demands)

-Authoritative parenting: parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children.(consider themselves guides to children)

Neglectful/uninvolved parenting: child behavior ignored or not noticed by parent; behavior similar to those of permissive parent, but parents do not care (do not care vs. permissive parents-> care very much)

Question 19

Long-term effects of parenting styles

Answer 19

Authoritarian parents- obedient, quiet, not happy, guilty, depressed, quick to blame and punish, rebel
Permissive parents- lack self control, immature friendships depend on parents, live at home
Authoritative parents- successful, happy
Neglectful/uninvolved parents-immature, sad, lonely

Question 20

Problems with the research

Answer 20

Problems with the research
-Small sample from one community

Multi-cultural, multi-contextual approach would consider differential susceptibility.
–Each child needs individualized discipline.

Question 21

Punishment

Answer 21

Punishment
–Every child misbehaves.
–Every child needs guidance to keep them safe and strong.
–Punishment methods are part of overall culture, not an isolated event.


Physical (corporal) punishment
-Discipline techniques that hurt the body of someone, from spanking to serious harm, including death.

Question 22

Who uses physical punishment?

Answer 22

Who uses physical punishment?
-International research: 63 percent of 2- to 5-year-olds had been physically punished in last month.
–Cultures that emphasize physical punishment stress obedience and authority.
-In the United States, child discipline depends more on region and ethnicity that child behavior.

-Where is spanking more frequent in the United States?
-low ES African American, latinos, religious

Question 23

Culture powerfully affects caregiving style.
-Difference apparent in
-Differences between
-Parents of all groups usually show

Answer 23

Culture powerfully affects caregiving style.
-Difference apparent in multiethnic nations
-Differences between majority and minority U.S. families should not be exaggerated.
–Parents of all groups usually show warmth to their children.
–Harsh, cold parenting appears harmful in every group.

Question 24

Spanking

Answer 24

Spanking
-Physical punishment increases obedience temporarily, but increases the possibility of later aggression, bullying, and abusive adolescent and adult behaviors.
–Children who are not spanked are more likely to develop self-control.
–Cultural influence, background, and context are notable across the United States and the world.

Question 25

Alternatives to spanking

Answer 25

Alternatives to spanking
-Psychological control
–Disciplinary technique that involves threatening to withdraw love and support and that relies on a child’s feelings of guilt and gratitude to the parents. (“I have done so much for you, you should be grateful”)(no better than spanking)

Time-out
-Disciplinary technique in which a child is separated from other people and activities for a specified time.

Induction
-Disciplinary technique in which parent tries to get the child to understand why a certain behavior was wrong. Listening, not lecturing, is crucial.

Question 26

Becoming boys and girls
Sex and gender

Answer 26

Becoming boys and girls
Sex and gender
–Sex differences are biological differences between males and females, in organs, hormones, and body.
–Gender differences are differences in male and female roles, behaviors, clothes, and so on, that arise from society, not biology.

Question 27

Becoming boys and girls
Distinction between sex and gender not always straightforward.

Answer 27

Becoming boys and girls

Distinction between sex and gender not always straightforward.
–Culture and biology not separate, but interacting, influences.

-Most children develop distinct identities by age 4; quite rigid by age 6.
-Despite parental encouragement to dismiss stereotypes, young children still show strong gender-based toy preferences.

Question 28

Transgender children

Answer 28

Transgender children
–Some parents accept their child’s insistence that they are transgender; others do not.
–Among adolescents studied, only a third of the mothers and a fourth of the fathers responded positively when their children first said they were transgender.
–Cisgender
–Intersex
–Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Question 29

cisgender

Answer 29

biological gender= presenting gender

Question 30

intersex

Answer 30

ambiguous gender, biologically and presenting

Question 31

hyperplasia

Answer 31

allele that impedes prenatal hormones
-causes intersex conditions

Question 32

The gender binary
Nonbinary perspective

Answer 32

The gender binary
Males and females are opposite.

Nonbinary perspective
-Every aspect of human brains, behavior, and bodies is somewhere along a continuum.
-Gender traits overlap between males and females.
-Perspective is prominent in human brain studies.

-studies show that most human brains are a male/female mosaic

Question 33

Gender similarities hypothesis

Answer 33

Gender similarities hypothesis

-Human emphasis on sex differences blinds us to the reality that the sexes have far more in common than traditional theories recognize.
-Similarities far outweigh differences in the brain, body, and behavior.

Agree or disagree? Why?

Question 34

Teaching right from wrong

Answer 34

Teaching right from wrong
-Sense of right and wrong is an outgrowth of attachment and social awareness.
-Protecting, cooperating, and caring are part of species survival.
-Innate moral impulses are strengthened through cognitive advances and peer interactions.

Question 35

Prosocial behavior
Antisocial actions

Answer 35

Prosocial behavior
Extending helpfulness and kindness without any obvious benefit to oneself: increases with maturity
–Empathy

learn empathy- understanding of others peoples feelings and concerns.-> leads to compassion and prosocial behavior

Antisocial actions
Deliberately hurting another person, including people who have done no harm: declines with maturity
– Antipathy

antipathy-> influenced by culture and experience, children learn to dislike some people, develops a little later-> can lead to antisocial actions

Question 36

Aggression

Answer 36

Aggression
Instrumental-> tool, to get something desired
Reactive- reacts when hurt in response to a remark
Relational-usually verbal, destroys self-esteem, disrupts social networks
Bullying aggression- done to dominate

-All forms of aggression usually become less common from ages 2 to 6, as the brain matures, emotional regulation increases and empathy builds.

-Children learn to understand social context and use aggression selectively and that decreases both victimization and aggression.