chapter 1 Flashcards by Amanda Salinas

Defining Development

The science of human development

…seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time.

goal: to be happy, productive, and meaningful life for everyone

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basic steps of the scientific method

Five basic steps of the scientific method
Begin with curiosity.
Develop a hypothesis.
Test the hypothesis.
Draw conclusions.
Report the results; replication.

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replication

repeating a study’s procedures and methods with diff. participants

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The Nature–Nurture Debate:  Basic Questions

How much of any characteristic, behavior, or emotion is the result of genes and chromosomes, set and conception? 

How much is the result of experiences, including those that affect biology and those that affect attitudes?

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The Nature–Nurture Concepts
Epigenetics
Differential susceptibility

Nature
Influence of genes we inherit 

Nurture
Environmental influences that affect development 

Epigenetics
How environmental factors affect genes and genetic expression 

Differential susceptibility
How environmental experiences differ because of particular inherited genes
Ready to Learn (U.S. Department of Education)

-people vary in how sensitive they are
dandelions-hardy, grow in good or bad soil
orchids- quite wonderful but only in ideal conditions

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 Age Ranges for Different Periods of Development 

Infancy 0 to 2 years
Early childhood 2 to 6 years
Middle childhood 6 to 11 years
Adolescence 11 to 18 years
Emerging adulthood 18 to 25 years
Adulthood 25 to 65 years
Late adulthood 65 years and older
“As you will learn, developmentalists are reluctant to specify chronological ages for any period of development, since time is only one of many variables that affect each person.
Approximate ages for each period are given here.” However, age is a crucial variable, and development can be segmented into periods of study.

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Development is

multi-directional.
multi-contextual.
multi-cultural.
plastic.

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Development is multi-directional.
Over time, human characteristics change in
-Pace of change also

-Over time, human characteristics change in every direction; development is not linear.
-Pace of change also varies: continuity and discontinuity.
-Gains and losses appear throughout life and are apparent historically and generationally.

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Critical and Sensitive Periods

Critical period
Time when certain things must occur for normal development
-grow hands and feet 28-48 days after conception

Sensitive period
Time when a particular development occurs most easily
-learning language- can learn later but with difficulty

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Development is multi-contextual.
Social context

Development is multi-contextual.
Social context
Everyone who influences each developing person, immediately and over time, directly and indirectly is included in social context.

-everyone is affected by their surroundings, social context of party, decides wether person will leave early or stay till 3 am

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Ecological-systems approach (Bronfenbrenner)

-Ecological-systems approach (Bronfenbrenner)
Each person is affected by many social contexts and interpersonal interactions.
-Three nested levels surround individuals and affect them.
-This approach later named bioecological theory.

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Development is multi-contextual.
Historical context

Development is multi-contextual.
Historical context
Cohort
All persons born within a few years of one another are said to be a cohort, a group defined by the shared age of its members.

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Development is multi-contextual
Socioeconomic context

-Socioeconomic status (SES): income, wealth, occupation, education, and neighborhood; underlies every other system
-Age and cohort are entangled with SES.

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Development is multi-cultural.
Culture

Development is multi-cultural.
Culture-social construct, affects how people think and act. what they value, ignore and punish

-System of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behavior and assumptions

-Social construction
Based on shared perceptions, not on objective reality 

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Development is multi-cultural.
Learning within a culture:

Development is multi-cultural.
Learning within a culture: Vygotsky

-People do not develop in isolation but rather in relationship to the culture of their community, transmitted by the words, objects, and actions of other people.

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difference equals deficit error

unusual beliefs, conventions, norms, behaviors, expectation are not as good as conventional ones

Development is multi-cultural.
Ethnic and racial groups

Ethnic group-done always share a culture
Consists of people whose ancestors were born in the same region and who may share a language, culture, and religion

Ethnicity
Includes social construction affected by social context, not a direct outcome of biology

Race
Includes social construction that is more affected by history than ethnicity; created and changed by societies

ehtnicity and race can be created and changed by societies

Intersectionality

Intersectionality
-Various identities need to be combined. 
-Systems of social categorization and group power intersect to influence everyone. 
-This is important in determining if discrimination occurs.

-our identities interact and influence each other

Development is plastic.

-Plasticity is basic to a contemporary understanding of human development.
-It simultaneously incorporates two facts:
—People can change over time.
—-New behavior depends partly on what has already happened. realism

Dynamic-systems approach

Dynamic-systems approach
-Suggests human development is an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between body and mind and between the individual and every aspect of the environment.
-Highlights how developmental change has always occurred.

Developmental theory

Developmental theory
-Systematic statement of principles and generalizations about human growth
-Framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older

Psychoanalytic theory
frued

Psychoanalytic theory
Theory
Proposes that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior. 
-development in the first 6 years affects personality, impulses, and emotions lifelong

Freud (1856–1939)
First psychoanalyst
-Proposed five psychosexual stages during which sensual satisfaction is linked to developmental needs and conflicts.
-Suggested early conflict resolution determines personality patterns.

-oral, anal , phallic, latency, genital

psychodynamic

human development theories
-stress power of person’s past experiences and emotions shape their current thoughts and actions
-first cluster of psychodynamic theories are called psychoanalytic

Psychodynamic theory
Erik Erikson (1902–1994)

Psychodynamic theory
Erik Erikson (1902–1994)
-Described eight developmental stages, each characterized by a challenging developmental crisis.
-Proposed five psychosocial stages build on Freud’s theory, but added three adult stages.
-Emphasized family and culture, not sexual urges.

Behaviorism classical conditioning

Behaviorism (learning theory) Focuses on observable behavior. Describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned.  Classical conditioning Proposes that learning takes place through processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli.

Behaviorism classical conditioning

Behaviorism (learning theory) Focuses on observable behavior. Describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned.  emphasizes nurture Classical conditioning Proposes that learning takes place through processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli. learning occurs through association

operant conditioning

occurs through reinforcement, punishment

social learning

observed behaviors become copied behaviors

Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)

Behaviorism Classical conditioning (respondent conditioning) Demonstrates that behaviors can be learned by making an association between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) Received the Nobel Prize in 1904 for his digestive processes research. Resulted in discovery of classical conditioning dogs via sound of bell

B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)

Behaviorism Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning) Learning process in which a particular action is followed either by something desired or something unwanted, making the action either more or less likely to be repeated. perform action then a response occurs-reward or punishment B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) Inspired by Pavlov Was best known for experiments with rats, pigeons, and his own daughter. agreed that classical conditioning explains some behavior

Social learning theory Albert Bandura (1925–2021)

Behaviorism Social learning theory -Is extension of behaviorism that emphasizes that other people influence each person's behavior. -Proposes that, even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people (modeling).  Albert Bandura (1925–2021) -First described social learning theory; Bobo Doll experiments -Emphasized the influence that other people have over a person's behavior.

Cognitive theory

Cognitive theory -Proposes thoughts and expectations profoundly affect actions, attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions. -Focuses on changes in how people think over time. -Jean Piaget (1896–1980) ---Maintained that cognitive development occurs in four major age-related periods, or stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. ----Stressed that intellectual advancement occurs throughout life because humans seek cognitive equilibrium. -how people think changes with maturation and experience. thinking influences not only how they think but also what they do.

Piaget’s Periods of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete operational Formal operational Take time to learn the age range, characteristics, and major gains of each period. humans seek cognitive equilibrium state of of mental balance through assimilation in order to advance intellectually

assimilation accommodation

Cognitive theory Assimilation Experiences are interpreted to fit into, or assimilate with, old ideas. Accommodation Old ideas are restructured to include, or accommodate, new experiences.