Chapter 6

Question 1

Three important elements of group structure:

Answer 1

(1) Norms, (2) Roles, and (3) Networks of connections

among the members.

Question 2

Norms

Answer 2

implicit, self-generating, and stable standards to regulate behavior of group members. Six
sorts of norms:
1. Prescriptive norms = set the standards for expected group behavior and which will be
rewarded.
2. Proscriptive norms = identify behaviors that should not be performed and which will be
punished.
3. Descriptive norms = define what most people do, feel, or think in the group.
4. Injunctive norms = describe how people must behave, feel, and think in a given situation.
5. Folkway = cultural standards that define behavior inside a culture (e.g., grammar,
vocabulary, clothing style, and behavior in public settings).
6. Mores = moral/societal standards of how to behave in certain situations; what is right and
what is wrong.

• Norms are internalized standards; individuals feel obligated to obtain them and react
  negatively when they violate them.

Question 3

Pluralistic ignorance

Answer 3

= group members do not agree with the group norm, but do not admit it because they think they are the only one with this vision, which causes them to
keep conforming to the group norm.

Question 4

Roles

Answer 4

specify the types of behaviors that are expected of individuals who occupy particular
positions within the group.

• Role differentiation = an increase in the number of roles in a group, accompanied by a
  gradual decrease in the scope of these roles as each one becomes more narrowly defined
  and specialized.

Two kind of roles:

1. Task roles = roles that contain behavior that focus on the accomplishment of tasks
and activities (e.g., initiating structure, providing task-related feedback, and setting
goals).

2. Relational roles = roles that contain behavior that improve the nature and quality of
   interpersonal relations among members (e.g., showing concern, reducing conflict,
   and enhancing feelings of satisfaction and trust).

Question 5

Functional role theories

Answer 5

emphasize the functional use of roles, including task roles, relationship roles, and individualistic roles.

Question 6

Interactionist role theories

Answer 6

roles are subdivided by: (1) role enactment = displaying certain behaviors as part of one’s role in the group, and (2) role sending = the transmission of one’s
expectations about what kinds of behaviors are expected of people who occupy particular
roles (by impression management).

Question 7

Dynamic role theories

Answer 7

Moxnes: some roles fit more with group members and some roles fit more with group tasks. Relational responsibilities are associated with the role of the
“mother” and task responsibilities associated with that of the “father”.

Question 8

Moreland & Levine: group socialization

Answer 8

a pattern of change in the relation between an
individual and the group. The theory considers five sorts of roles; prospective member, new
member, full member, marginal member, and former member

Question 9

role ambiguity

Answer 9

unclear expectations about the tasks of an individual with a certain role in the group.

Question 10

Role conflict

Answer 10

when different demands are in conflict with each other. Two kinds:

1. Interrole conflict = when a member occupies two more roles that call for
   incompatible behaviors. > Roles will be in conflict with each other.
2. Intrarole conflict = when the demands of a single role are contradictory.

Question 11

Role fit

Answer 11

the degree of congruence between the demands of a specific role and the attitudes, values, skills, and other characteristics of the individual who occupies the role.

Question 12

Networks

Answer 12

intermember relations in a group

Question 13

Social network analysis (SNA)

Answer 13

offers researchers the means to describe a group’s structure
both visually and quantitatively. It contains information of every member of the network
(egocentric network) and the group as a whole (sociocentric network).

• Several important egocentric indexes:
  1. Degree of centrality = how many connections does a certain member have.
  2. Outdegree centrality = number of connections somebody establishes with
  other people, and indegree centrality = number of connections someone
  receives of other people.
  3. Betweenness = ties to more distant actors in the network, and closeness =
  the distance to all other members of the group in terms of connections.
• Several important sociocentric indexes:
  1. Density = determined by how many people are linked to one another out of
  the possible number of links.
  2. Size = number of individuals in the network.
  3. Cliques = clusters of subgroups in larger networks.
  4. Holes = disconnections in a network that separate clusters/cliques

Question 14

Status differentiation

Answer 14

the slow growth of group members toward a position with more authority, accompanied by the decrease of authority of other members.

Question 15

Sociometric differentiation

Answer 15

the development of stronger and more positive interpersonal ties between some members of the group, accompanied by decreases in the quality of
relations between other members of the group.

• Heider: balance theory = relationships can be either balanced (integrated units with
  elements that fit together without stress) or unbalanced (inconsistent units with
  elements that conflict one another). > A group is balanced when; (1) All relations
  inside the group are positive, or (2) if there are equal amounts of negative and
  positive relations in a group.

Question 16

Communication network

Answer 16

patterns of information transmission and exchange that describe who communicates most frequently and to what extent with whom.
Several ways:
1. Wheel network = all group members communicate with only one person.
2. Comcon network = all members communicate with all members.
3. Chain network = communication flows from one person to the next person in row.
4. Circle network = chain network in the form of a circle.
5. Pinwheel network = circle in which information flows in one direction (only network
without bidirectional information stream).

Question 17

Information saturation

Answer 17

the harder a task becomes, the harder it is for the central position in the network to execute his task; he can’t handle all the information anymore.

Question 18

Bales: Systematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG)

Answer 18

structure is based on three
dimensions:

1. Up versus down (dominance versus submissiveness) = is the group member active,
   extraverted, and talkative or is he rather passive and quiet?
2. Positive versus negative (friendliness versus unfriendliness) = is the group member, warm,
   open, and positive or is he rather negative and irritated?
3. Forward versus backward (acceptance or nonacceptance of authority) = is the group
   member analytic and goal-oriented or is he rather emotional and deviate?