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PSYCH1011 > Chapter 5 - Sensation and Perception > Flashcards

Chapter 5 - Sensation and Perception Flashcards

1
Q

Define Sensation

List the 5 classical senses.

A

Sensation = the stimulus detection process by which our sense organs respond to and translate environmental stimuli into nerve impulses that are sent to the brain

•Five classical senses = vision, audition, gustation, olfaction, touch (pressure, pain, temperature)

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2
Q

Define Psychophysics.

What are they?

A

Psychophysics = studies relations between the physical characteristics of stimuli and sensory capabilities

  • Absolute limits of sensitivity
  • Differences between stimuli
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3
Q

Define Absolute threshold.

A

Absolute threshold = the lowest intensity at which a stimulus can be detected 50% of the time

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4
Q

What are the three subcategories of Absolute Threshold?

Define them.

A
  • Decision criterion = a standard of how certain they must be that a stimulus is present before they will say they detect it
  • Signal-detection theory = concerned with the factors that influence sensory judgements
  • Subliminal stimuli = very weak stimuli that do not register in awareness
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5
Q

Define Difference threshold.

A

Difference threshold = the smallest difference between two stimuli that people can perceive 50% of the time (just noticeable difference)

Weber’s Law.

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6
Q

Define Difference Threshold with Weber’s Law.

A

•Weber’s law = the difference threshold (jnd) is directly proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus with which the comparison is being made (expressed as a Weber fraction)

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7
Q

Define Sensory Adaptation.

Examples.

A

Sensory adaptation = the process by which our sensitivity diminishes when an object constantly stimulates our senses

(e.g. air conditioning, clock ticking, street sounds, clothes against skin)

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8
Q

List the Vision Parts of the Eye.

A
  1. Cornea
  2. Pupil
  3. Iris
  4. Lens
  5. Retina
  6. Photoreceptors
    1. Rods
    2. Cones
  7. Fovea
  8. Optic nerve
  9. Blind spot
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9
Q

Explain the Cornea:

A

o Cornea = transparent protective structure at the front of the eye where light waves enter

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10
Q

Explain the Pupil:

A

o Pupil = an adjustable opening that can dilate or constrict to control the amount of light that enters the eye

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11
Q

Explain the Iris:

A

o Iris = coloured portion of the eye that regulates the amount of light entering the eye

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12
Q

Explain the lens:

A

o Lens = an elastic structure that becomes thinner to focus on distant objects and thicker to focus on nearby objects

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13
Q

Explain the Retina:

A

o Retina = thin layer of nerve tissue that lines the back of the eye, responsible for recording electromagnetic energy and converting it to neural impulses for processing in the brain

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14
Q

Explain Photoreceptors.

A

Found in the retina

Photoreceptors convert light wave energy into neural signals

Two types:

  1. Rods
  2. Cones
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15
Q

Explain Rods vs Cones

A

Rods = photoreceptors that function in low illumination and play a key role in night vision (responsive to dark and light contrast)
– Found in the periphery

Cones = photoreceptors that are responsible for colour vision and are most functional in conditions of bright light
– Found in the fovea

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16
Q

Explain the Fovea:

A

o Fovea = a small area in the CENTRE of the retina that contains no rods but many densely packed cones

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17
Q

Explain the Optic Nerve:

A

o Optic nerve = the rods and cones have synaptic connections with bipolar cells, which synapse with ganglion cells, whose axons are collected in a bundle to form the optic nerve

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18
Q

Explain the Blind Spot:

A

o Blind spot = place on the retina where the optic nerve exits the eye (there are no photoreceptors here and we cannot see anything that reaches only this part of the retina)

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19
Q

What is VISUAL ACUITY?

A

• Visual acuity = ability to see fine detail, determined by the properties of rods and cones

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20
Q

What is DARK ADAPTATION?

A

• Dark adaptation = process of adjustment to seeing in the dark, which can take up to 30 minutes

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21
Q

Define Accomodation in the eye.

A

• Accommodation = process by which the muscles control the shape of the lens to adjust for viewing objects at different distances

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22
Q

Explain NEARSIGHTEDNESS VS FARSIGHTEDNESS.

A
  • Nearsightedness = the lens focuses on the image in front of the retina (able to see near objects clearly, but far objects are blurry)
  • Farsightedness = the lens focuses on the image past the retina (able to see far objects clearly, but near objects are blurry)
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23
Q

Explain MYOPIA VS HYPEROPIA.

A

• Myopia = shortsightedness
o The lens focuses on the visual image in front of the retina or too near the lens

• Hyperopia = longsightedness
o The lens does not thicken enough and focuses on the visual image behind the retina or too far from the lens

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24
Q

What are the aspects of COLOUR VISION?

A
  1. Three DIMENSIONS of colour

2. Three types of CONES

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25
Q

What are the three dimensions of colour?

A

o Three dimensions of colour
1. Hue = the apparent colour of an object

  1. Saturation = the purity of the colour
  2. Lightness = the extent to which a colour is light or dark
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26
Q

What are the three types of Cones?

A

o Three types of cones

  1. S-cone (short waves)
  2. M-cone (medium waves)
  3. L-cone (long waves)
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27
Q

List and Explain the three types of COLOUR BLINDNESS.

WHAT IS THE MOST COMMON?

A

o Types of colour-blindness

  1. Trichromat = normal colour vision
  2. Dichromat = colour-blind in one system
  3. Monochromat = totally colour-blind (only sensitive to the black-white system)

 Red-green is the most common form of colour blindness

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28
Q

List the three Theories of COLOUR VISION

A
  1. Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory
  2. Hering’s opponent process theory
  3. Dual process theory
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29
Q

Explain Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory:

A
  • Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory: colour is explained by differential activation of three colour receptors in the eye
    • Blue
    • Green
    • Red
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30
Q

Explain Hering’s opponent process theory:

A
  • Hering’s opponent process theory = colours are derived from activity of three antagonistic systems (each of the three cone types respond to two different wavelengths)
    • Blue-yellow
    • Red-green
    • Black-white
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31
Q

Explain the Dual Process theory:

A
  • Dual process theory = incorporates both trichromatic and opponent process theories (both are a bit correct)
32
Q

Why does context matter with vision? (Colour Constancy)

A

o Context matters

Colour constancy = the tendency of a surface to appear the same colour under a fairly wide range of illuminants

33
Q

What are the main components of Audition?

A
  1. Sound
  2. Frequency
    1. Hertz
  3. Amplitude
    1. Decibels
34
Q

Define Sound:

A

• Sound = pressure waves in air, water or some other conducting medium (a form of mechanical energy)

35
Q

Define frequency:

How is it measured? How much can a human hear?

A

o Frequency = the number of sound waves, or cycles, per second

MEASURED IN - Hertz (Hz) = the technical measure of cycles per second (1 hertz equals 1 cycle per second)

 Determines pitch / tone
*Humans are capable of detecting 20 to 20,000 Hz

36
Q

Define Amplitude:

How is it measured?

A

o Amplitude = the vertical size of the sound waves (the amount of compression and expansion of the molecules in the conducting medium)

  • Decibels (dB) = a measure of the physical pressures that occur at the eardrum

** Determines intensity / loudness

37
Q

List the Parts of an EAR:

A
  1. Auditory Canal
  2. Eardrum
  3. Middle Ear
  4. Hammer (malleus)
  5. Anvil (incus)
  6. Stirrup (stapes)
  7. Inner ear
  8. Cochlea
  9. Basal Membrane
  10. Organ of Corti
38
Q

Define the Eardrum:

A

o Eardrum = a membrane that vibrates in response to sound waves

39
Q

Define the MIDDLE EAR and its THREE STRUCTURES.

A

o Middle ear = a cavity housing three tiny bones

  • Hammer (malleus) = attached to the eardrum
  • Anvil (incus)
  • Stirrup (stapes) = attached to the oval window
40
Q

Define the INNER EAR and its STRUCTURES:

A

o Inner ear
- Cochlea = a coiled, snail-shaped tube about 3.5 centimetres in length that is filled with fluid and contains the basilar membrane

  • Basilar membrane = a sheet of tissue that runs the length of the cochlea
  • Organ of Corti = rests on the basilar membrane and contains about 16,000 tiny hair cells that are the actual sound receptors (attached to the tectorial membrane)
41
Q

What are the Two theories for CODING FREQUENCY (AUDITION)

A
  1. FREQUENCY THEORY

2. PLACE THEORY

42
Q

Explain the Frequency theory ( for Coding Frequency)

A

o Frequency theory = we sense sound frequency depending on the fluid movement (nerve impulses sent to the brain match the frequency of the sound wave)

  • Low frequencies
  • ***Criticism: neurons cannot respond fast enough (only gets to 1000Hz but we sense 20,000 Hz)
43
Q

Explain the Place Theory (for coding frequency)

A

o Place theory = we sense sound frequency according to the locations of fluid activity in the cochlear (the specific point in the cochlea where the fluid wave peaks and most strongly bends the hair cells serves as a frequency coding cue)

  • High frequencies
44
Q

List some causes for Hearing loss:

A
  1. Conduction of Deafness
  2. Nerve Damage
  3. Sound localisation
45
Q

Explain Conduction of Deafness:

A

o Conduction deafness = problems involving structures of the ear that transmit vibrations to the cochlea

  • Punctured eardrum or loss of function in the tiny bones of the middle ear
46
Q

Explain Nerve Damage (for Deafness)

A

o Nerve damage = the receptors in the cochlea or auditory nerve are damaged

  • Exposure to loud sounds, ageing and disease

**Hearing aids work for conduction deafness but not nerve deafness

47
Q

Explain Sound localisation

A

• Sound localisation = sounds arrive first and loudest at the ear closest to the sound

48
Q

What are the 2 types of CHEMICAL SENSES:

A
  1. Gustation

2. Olfaction

49
Q

Define GUSTATION:

Explain the TASTE BUDS and what they detect:

A

• Gustation = the sense of taste

o Taste buds = chemical receptors concentrated along the tip, edges and back surface of the tongue (9000)

  1. Sweet
  2. Sour
  3. Salty
  4. Bitter = many poisonous substances in nature have bitter tastes
  5. Umami = increases the intensity of other taste qualities
50
Q

Define OLFACTION
- Olfactory Receptors vs Olfactory Bulb

What are pheromones? and Explain one of them. (MENSTRUAL SYNCHRONY)

A

• Olfaction = the sense of smell

o Olfactory receptors = long cells in the upper nasal cavity (40 million)
o Olfactory bulb = a forebrain structure immediately above the nasal cavity

  • Pheromones = chemical signals found in natural body scents
  • **Menstrual synchrony = the tendency for women who live together or are close friends to become more similar in their menstrual cycles
51
Q

What/List the SKIN AND BODY SENSES:

A

Skin and body senses:
E.g. touch, kinaesthesis and equilibrium

  1. Tactile Senses
  2. Mechanoreceptors
  3. Pain
52
Q

Explain the Tactile senses

A

• Tactile senses = pressure (touch), pain, warmth, cold

o Free nerve endings = receptors for pain and temperature
o Basket cell fibres = receptors for touch and light pressure

53
Q

Explain the Mechanoreceptors:

A

• Mechanoreceptors = receptor cells in the skin sensitive to different tactile qualities

(e.g. shape, grooves, vibrations)

54
Q

Explain the pain receptors

2 components

A

• Pain = a complex emotional and sensory experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage

o The SENSORY component of pain is relayed by the thalamus to the somatosensory and frontal areas of the cerebral cortex
o The EMOTIONAL component of pain is relayed by the thalamus to the limbic system

55
Q

Explain the Melzack and Wall’s gate theory:

A

• Melzack & Wall’s gate control theory = the spinal cord regulates the experience of pain by either opening or closing neural channels (gates) which transmit pain sensations to the brain

      o	Central control mechanism = allows thoughts, emotions and beliefs to influence the experience of pain
56
Q

What are Glial Cells:

Cytokines?

A

• Glial cells = involved in the creation and maintenance of pathological pain
o Amplify pain by releasing cytokines
- Cytokines = promote inflammation

57
Q

What are Endorphins?

Morphine?

A

• Endorphins = natural pain killers that our bodies release to interfere with pain messages in the brain and the spinal cord (may delay the feeling or perception of pain)

o Can be naturally released or released due to external factors (e.g. morphine)

58
Q

What is ANALGESIA?

A

• Analgesia = decreases the pain sensation during conscious experience

59
Q

What is phantom limb?

Explain MISS C:

A

• Phantom limb = a sensation perceived from a physically amputated limb of the body
o Parts of the brain listening to the missing limbs are not fully aware of the altered connections (attribute activity in these areas to stimulation from the missing limb)

  • Miss C: demonstrates the survival implications of pain
    • Born with insensitivity to pain (e.g. did not sneeze, cough, gag or blink reflexively) and died at age 29 from infections that could have been prevented if she sensed pain
60
Q

What is KINAETHESIS?

- Vestibular sense?

A

• Kinaesthesis = provides feedback on the position and movement of our muscles and joints

o Vestibular sense = the sense of body orientation or equilibrium
- Vestibular receptors are located in the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear

61
Q

Define PERCEPTION?

A

Perception = the active process of organising this stimulus input and giving it meaning

62
Q

What is TRANSDUCTION?

What are the 2 types?

A

• Transduction = the process whereby the characteristics of a stimulus are converted into nerve impulses

o Bottom-up processing = the system takes in individual elements of the stimulus and then combines them into unified perception (response of sensory neurons)
o Top-down processing = sensory information is interpreted in light of existing knowledge, concepts, ideas and expectations (attentional sets)

63
Q

What is INATTENTIONAL BLINDESS?

A

• Inattentional blindness = the failure to perceive certain stimuli while attending to other stimuli

64
Q

What is Figure-Ground Relations?

A

• Figure-ground relations = our tendency to organise stimuli into a central or foreground figure and a background

65
Q

What are the Gesalt Laws of PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATION: (4)

DEFINE THEM

A

o Similarity = when parts of a configuration are perceived as similar, they will be perceived as belonging together

o Proximity = elements that are near each other are likely to be perceived as part of the same configuration

o Closure = people tend to close the open edges of a figure or fill in gaps in an incomplete figure, so that their identification of the form is more complete than what is actually there

o Continuity = people link individual elements together so they form a continuous line or pattern that makes sense

66
Q

What is Perceptual Schema?

A

• Perceptual schema = a mental representation or image containing the critical and distinctive features of a person, object, event or other perceptual phenomenon

67
Q

What is Perceptual Set?

A

• Perceptual set = a readiness to perceive stimuli in a particular way

68
Q

What is Perceptual Constancies?

A

• Perceptual constancies = the recognition that objects are constant and unchanging even though sensory input about them is changing
o Brightness
o Size
o Shape

69
Q

What is Afterimages?

A

• Afterimages = visual images that remain after removal of or looking away from the stimulus

70
Q

What is Synaesthesia?

A

• Synaesthesia = an unusual sensory phenomenon in which a person experiences sensations in one sense when a different sense is stimulated (e.g. experiencing numbers as colours)

71
Q

What is Subliminal Stimulus?

A

• Subliminal stimulus = when a stimulus is so small that the sensory receptors can detect it, yet there is no conscious awareness of the stimulus

72
Q

What are Illusions?

- Ponzo illusion?

A

• Illusions = compelling but incorrect perceptions

o Ponzo illusion: the depth cues of linear perspective and height of the horizontal plane provide distance cues that make the upper bar appear farther away than the lower bar

73
Q

What are Critical Periods?

A

• Critical periods = certain kinds of experiences must occur if perceptual abilities and the brain mechanisms that underlie them are to develop normally

(e.g. kittens exposed to only vertical lines are unable to perceive horizontal lines)

74
Q

What is depth Perception?

A

• Depth perception = the ability to see things in three dimensions and to discriminate what is near from what is far

75
Q

Explain Monocular Depth Cues? (7)

A

o Monocular depth cues = require only one eye
- Patterns of light and shadow

  1. Linear perspective = lines that are parallel in the three-dimensional world will appear to converge in a two-dimensional image as they extend into the distance
  2. Interposition (occlusion) = a cue to relative depth order in which one object obstructs the view of part of another object
  3. Relative height = below the horizon, objects higher in the visual field appear farther away; above the horizon, objects lower in the visual field appear farther away
  4. Texture = objects appear finer as distance increases
  5. Clarity = based on the implicit understanding that light is scattered by the atmosphere (more light is scattered when we look through more atmosphere; more distant objects appear fainter, bluer and less distinct)
  6. Relative size = a comparison of size between items without knowing the absolute size of either one (assume that smaller objects are farther away than larger objects)
  7. Motion parallax = images closer to the observer move faster across the visual field than images farther away
76
Q

Define Binocular Depth Cues? (Explain the 2 Types)

A

o Binocular depth cues = require both eyes

  1. Binocular disparity = each eye sees a slightly different image (generates depth using stereopsis)
  2. Convergence = produced by feedback from the muscles that turn your eye inward to view a close object
77
Q

What is Signal Detection Theory?

A

• Signal detection theory = both stimulus intensity and decision-making processes are involved in the detection of a stimulus (e.g. false alarms due to hypersensitivity to the stimulus)

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