Chapter 2 - Studying Behaviour Scientifically

Question 1

List the Steps in the Scientific Process: (5)

Answer 1

1. Identity
2. Hypothesise
3. Test
4. Analyse
5. Build

Question 2

Explain the 5 steps of the scientific process:

Answer 2

STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC PROCESS
• 1. IDENTIFY a question of interest

• 2. Gather information and form a HYPOTHESIS (hypothesise)
o Examine whether any studies, theories and other information already exist that might help answer their question
o Hypothesis: specific prediction about some phenomenon that often takes the form of an if-­‐then statement

• 3. TEST the hypothesis by conducting research
• 4. ANALYSE data, draw tentative conclusions, report findings
• 5. BUILD a body of knowledge, eventually leading to theories being formed.

Question 3

What are the 2 approached to understanding behaviour?

Answer 3

1. HINDSIGHT

2. UNDERSTANDING THROUGH PREDICTION, CONTROL AND THEORY BUILDING

Question 4

2 APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING BEHAVIOUR: EXPLAIN HINSIGHT

Answer 4

• Hindsight: the easiest to arrive at after-­‐the-­‐fact explanation. The limitation is that past events can often be understood in many ways, of which there is no way to know which is correct.

Question 5

2 APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING BEHAVIOUR: EXPLAIN Understanding through prediction, control and theory building

What makes a good theory? (4)

Answer 5

• Understanding through prediction, control and theory building: a scientific alternative.

A good theory consists of:
o Organised existing information meaningfully
o Testable, generating new hypotheses
o Predictions made by theory are supported by findings of new research
o Conforms to law of parsimony – a simpler theory is preferred to a more complex one, where they both explain and predict the same phenomenon

Question 6

Define Variable:

Answer 6

• Variable: any factor that can vary

o Operational definition defines a variable in terms of the specific procedures used to produce or measure it (to conduct research, this is done)

Question 7

Define Measuring:

examples:

Answer 7

• Measuring: there are various measurement techniques at disposal

examples:
o Self-­‐reports and reports by others. They are done often anonymously to reduce social desirability bias.
o Measures of overt behaviour/direct observation. We try to use unobtrusive measures to avoid behavioural changes due to the observation.
o Psychological tests
o Physiological measures e.g. measure heart rate, blood pressure etc. to assess what people are experiencing

Question 8

WHY do we need ETHICAL PRINCIPLES IN RESEARCH?

List and Explain them (5)

Answer 8

• To safeguard the rights of participants

• Fundamental principles of ethical conduct:
o 1. Merit – potential benefit
o 2. Integrity – the study must be done honestly and be open to public scrutiny
o 3. Justice – participants treated fairly
o 4. Beneficence – benefits individuals/community
o 5. Respect

• Participants must be fully explained as to what their involvement includes. Deception is controversial unless there is no other feasible alternative than to deceive participants, e.g. when it affects results not to.

Question 9

List the METHODS of RESEARCH:

Answer 9

1. Case study
2. Naturalistic Observation
3. Survey
4. Correlation Study
5. Experiment

Question 10

Explain CASE STUDY

1. Primary Feature
2. Main Advantages
3. Main Disadvantages

Answer 10

1. An individual, group or event is examined in detail, often using several techniques (e.g. observations, interviews, psychological
   tests)
2. Provides rich descriptive information, often suggesting hypothesis for further study.
3. Poor method for establishing cause-­‐effect. Case may not be representative. Often relies on subjective interpretations

Question 11

Explain NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION

1. Primary Feature
2. Main Advantages
3. Main Disadvantages

Answer 11

1. Behaviour observed in the setting in which it naturally occurs
2. Can provide detailed information about the nature, frequency and context of naturally occurring behaviours
3. Poor method for establishing cause-­‐effect relations.
   Observer’s presence, if known, may influence participants’ behaviour.

Question 12

Explain SURVEY

1. Primary Feature
2. Main Advantages
3. Main Disadvantages

Answer 12

1. Questions or tests are administered to a sample drawn from a larger population
2. A properly selected, representative sample yields accurate information about the broader population
3. Unrepresentative samples may yield misleading results. Interviewer bias and social desirability bias can distort
   findings

Question 13

Explain CORRELATIONAL STUDY

1. Primary Feature
2. Main Advantages
3. Main Disadvantages

Answer 13

1. Variables are measured and the strength of their association is determined.
2. Correlation allows prediction. May help establish how well findings from experiments generalise to more natural settings. Can examine issues that cannot be studied ethically or practically in experiments.
3. Correlation does not imply causation, due to the bidirectionality problem and the third-­‐variable problem (can create confounding of variables)

Question 14

Explain EXPERIMENT

1. Primary Feature
2. Main Advantages
3. Main Disadvantages

Answer 14

1. Independent variables are manipulated and their effects on dependent variables are measured.
2. Optimal method for examining cause-­‐effect relations. The ability to control extraneous factors helps rule out alternative explanations.
3. Confounding of variables, placebo effects and experimenter expectancies can threaten the validity of causal conclusions.

Question 15

LIST the THREATS TO THE VALIDITY OF THE RESEARCH: (5) threats to the validity

Answer 15

1. Internal Validity
2. Confounding Variables
3. Placebo Effects
4. Experimenter Expectancy Effects
5. Replicaing and Generalising the Findings

Question 16

THREATS TO THE VALIDITY OF THE RESEARCH: Explain internal validity

Answer 16

• Internal validity: represents the degree to which an experiment supports clear causal conclusions. If an experiment contains important flaws, it will have low internal validity because we can no longer be sure what causes the differences in the dependent variable.

Question 17

THREATS TO THE VALIDITY OF THE RESEARCH: Explain the Confounding of variables

Answer 17

• Confounding of variables means that those variables are intertwined in such a way that we cannot determine which one has influenced a dependent variable.

o Solution – keep all other variables constant besides the independent variable
o Note it is the reason why causal conclusions cannot be drawn from correlational research

Question 18

THREATS TO THE VALIDITY OF THE RESEARCH: Explain Placebo Effects

Answer 18

• Placebo effects: people receiving treatment show a change in behaviour because of their expectations, not because the treatment itself had any specific benefit.

o Decreases internal validity by providing an alternative explanation for why responses change after exposure to treatment.

Question 19

THREATS TO THE VALIDITY OF THE RESEARCH: Explain Experimenter Expectancy

Answer 19

• Experimenter expectancy effects: subtle and unintentional ways a researcher influences participants to respond in a manner that is consistent with the researcher’s hypothesis.

o Double-­‐blind procedure minimises both placebo effects and experimenter expectancy effects

Question 20

THREATS TO THE VALIDITY OF THE RESEARCH: Explain Replicating and generalising the findings;

Define External validity?

Define Replication?

Answer 20

• Replicating and generalising the findings

o External validity: degree to which the results of a study can be generalised to other populations, settings and conditions.

o Replication: the process of repeating a study to determine whether the original findings can be duplicated.

Question 21

HOW TO ANALYSE AND INTERPRET DATA?

Answer 21

1. Descriptive statistics allow us to summarise and describe the characteristics of a set/distribution of data
2. Measures of central tendency: mean, median, mode. Mean is the most commonly used (Especially with outliers) measure of central tendency as it accounts for all scores.
3. Measures of variability: range (least informative), standard deviation