Chapter 11: Motivation and Emotion

Question 1

What is Motivation?

Answer 1

• Motivation influences the direction, vigour and persistence of goal-­‐directed behaviour. Homeostatic models view motivation as an attempt to maintain equilibrium in bodily systems.

Question 2

What are some Sources of Motivation? 4

Answer 2

1. Physiological factors
   - Needs for food, water and air
2. Cognitive factors
   - Expectations of success or failure, perceptions of strengths and weaknesses.
3. Social factors
   - Influence of friends, parents or teachers,
4. Emotional factors
   - Anxiety, panic, love, fear or anger.-

Question 3

List the 3 theories:

Answer 3

1. Drive Theories
2. Incentive Theories
3. Psychodynamic Theories

Question 4

Explain Drive theory:

Answer 4

• Drive theories propose that tissue deficits create drives, such as hunger, that push an organism to reduce that deficit and restore homeostasis.

Question 5

Explain Incentive Theory:

Answer 5

• Incentive theories emphasize environmental factors that pull people towards a goal. Expectancy x value theory explains why the same incentive may motivate some people but not others.

Question 6

Explain Psychodynamic Theory:

Answer 6

• Psychodynamic theories emphasize that unconscious motives guide much of our behaviour. Abraham Maslow proposed that needs exist in a hierarchy, from basic biological needs to the ultimate need for self-­‐ actualisation.

Self-­‐determination theory emphasizes the importance of three fundamental needs-­‐ competence, autonomy and relatedness, as well as distinctions between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Question 7

LIST the theories of MOTIVATION:

Answer 7

• Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy (1954)
• Approach-­‐Avoidance Motivation (Gray, 1991)
• Evolutionary Psychology

Question 8

Explain Maslows Needs Hierarchy (1954):

Answer 8

o When basic needs are met -­‐ need progression
o When lower needs no longer satisfaction – need regression
o Criticisms
- Self-­‐actualisation – vague and hard to measure
- Ordering of needs is somewhat arbitrary
- Concepts of needs progression/regression cannot readily account for important aspects of motivated behaviour

• Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory: a motivation theory of needs arranged in a hierarchy whereby people are motivated to fulfil a higher need as a lower one becomes gratified.

Question 9

What does Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory Suggest?

Answer 9

o Maslow suggested that we are motivated simultaneously by several primary needs (drives) but the strongest source of motivation is the lowest unsatisfied need at the time.

o Satisfaction-­‐progression process:
 When lower need is satisfied, next higher need becomes the primary motivator (‘deficiency needs’)

o Exception: self-­‐actualization is a ‘growth need’, because it continues to develop even when somewhat fulfilled

o Maslow identified the desire to know and desire for aesthetic beauty as two innate drivers that do not fit within the hierarchy.

o Physiological: need for food, air, water, shelter, etc.

o Safety: need for security and stability

o Belongingness: the need for interaction with and affection from others

o Esteem: the need for self-­‐esteem wand social esteem/status

o Self-­‐actualisation: the need for self-­‐fulfillment, realization of one’s potential.

Question 10

Explain the APPROACH-AVOIDANCE MOTIVATION (GRAY, 1991) on Motivation

Answer 10

o Behavioural activation system
- Activated by signals of potential reward and gratification of needs (and wants)

o Behavioural inhibition system

Question 11

explain EVOLUTIONARY Psychology theory on motivation

Answer 11

o Initially focused on instincts
- Automatic, fixed stimulus-­‐response patterns

• When someone encounters x, they will do y
- Proposed thousands of instincts to explain behaviour

o Problem: circular reading

o Genetics may influence but not determine our motivation

o Behavioural tendencies evolved as they helped humans adapt to their environments

o Acknowledges the role of both in-­‐built tendencies and their interaction with experience.

Question 12

Aim of Psychological processes?

Answer 12

• Physiological processes attempt to keep the body in energy homeostasis.

Question 13

How does Psychological processes try to attain homeostasis?

Answer 13

• Changes in supply of glucose available to cells provide one signal that helps initiate hunger.
• During meals, hormones such as CCK are released into the bloodstream and help signal the brain to stop eating.
• Fat cells release leptin, which acts as a long-­‐term signal that helps regulate appetite. The hypothalamus plays an important role in hunger regulation.
• Through classical conditioning neutral stimuli can acquire the capacity to trigger hunger.
• Cultural norms affect our food preferences and eating habits.
• Heredity and the environment affect our susceptibility to becoming obese.
• Anorexia and Bulimia occur more often in cultures that value thinness and are associated with somewhat different psychological profiles. Hereditary predisposes some people towards developing these eating disorders.

Question 14

Explain MOTIVATION and ATTRACTION:

Answer 14

• The past half-­‐century has witnessed changing patterns of sexual activity, such as an increase in premarital sex.
• During sexual intercourse people often experience a four-­‐stage physiological response pattern consisting of excitement, plateau, orgasm and resolution.
• Environmental stimuli affect sexual desire. Viewing sexual violence reinforces men’s belief in rape myths and generally increases men’s aggression toward women.
• Sexual orientation involves dimensions of self-­‐identity, sexual attraction and actual sexual behaviour. Scientists do not completely understand the bases for sexual orientation.

• Men and women want to maximize their genetic success
o Maximize the likelihood that genetic material will survive into the next generation

• Most factors governing attraction are non-­‐conscious.
• Individual behaviours themselves may not facilitate passing of genes, the motivations which drive those behaviours do.
• Biological differences in reproductive potential

Question 15

Motivation and Attraction: WOMEN Pregnancy

Answer 15

• Women:
o Produce fewer sexual gametes

o Producing a child requires a high level of investment (9mnth gestation, breastfeeding)

o Can produce a small number of children

Question 16

Motivation and Attraction: Men Sexual Reproduction

Answer 16

• Men:
o Produce many sexual gametes
o Producing a child doesn’t necessarily involve a high investment
o Can produce a large number of children

Question 17

MEN VS WOMEN - attraction and motivation

Answer 17

• Based on these biological imperatives

• Due to the differences in the cost of producing offspring
o Women may want more opportunity to assess the quality of life of a potential mate
o Men may be less

• Gender differences in Receptivity to Sexual Offers
o Clark and Hartfield (1989)
 Dispositional factors (men may b more impulsive)
 Social factors to consider (expectations and norms)
 Contextual factors
 Safety factors

• For males, there’s a limited investment in producing offspring
o Most concerned about a male’s potential fertility

• Women’ fertility tends to decline fairly quickly

• For women – highly invested in offspring
o Value access to resources in a partner
o Fertility declines less rapidly for men with age

• Cross cultural research
o Women are generally attracted to males with higher levels of

• Women demonstrate obvious preferences in physical attractive

• Checklist of desirables
o Good provider
o Good genes – features derived from high testosterone
o Nice, friendly, caring etc.

• The problem
o Hard to get
o High testosterone may lead to high aggression, social dominance, impulsive behaviour & domestic violence.

• Penton-­‐Voak et al 1999

Question 18

MEN VS WOMEN SUMMARY of Motivation and attraction:

Answer 18

• Men and women may differ in patterns of motivation to engage in sexual behaviour
• Men and women show distinct patterns of attraction that may be consistent with the motivation

Question 19

SOCIAL SITUATIONS: High-need achievers, Low need achievers, “Mastery-approach, ego-approach, master-avoidance and ego avoidance”

Answer 19

• People differ in how strongly they need to affiliate, and some theorists view affliative behaviour as governed by homeostatic principles.
• Situations that induce fear often increase people’s tendency to affiliate. When afraid, people often seek the company of others who have been though or are currently experiencing the same, or a similar situation.
• Social exclusion is a painful experience for most people and it often leads to attempts to reconnect socially in new relationships.
• HIGH-NEED achievers have a strong motive for success and relatively low fear of failure. The tend to seek moderately difficult tasks that are challenging but attainable.
• LOW NEED achievers are more likely to choose easy tasks, where success is assured, or very difficult tasks, where success is not expected.
• MASTERY-APPROACH ego-­‐approach, master-­‐avoidance and ego-­‐avoidance are four basic achievement goals. Compared with ego-­‐involving environments, mastery-­‐involving motivational climates foster more positive psychological and performance outcomes.
• Motivational goals may conflict with one another.
• Approach-­‐Approach conflict occurs when a person has to select between two attractive alternatives, whereas Avoidance-­‐Avoidance conflict occurs when we are attracted to and repelled by the same goal.

Question 20

What are emotions?

Answer 20

• Feelings or ‘affective states’ involving organised patterns of cognitive, behavioural and physiological reactions to changes in one’s relationship to the world.

• These reactions are:
o Partly inner, or subjective, experiences
o Partly measurable patterns of behaviour and physiological arousal.

• They serve adaptive motivating functions (generally)
o Emergency-­‐arousal systems
**Anxiety and fear
o As a form of social communication
**Recognising and reacting to distress or happiness in others.
o Bonding
**Shared positive emotions (joy, happiness, love).

Question 21

Subjective Experience of Emotion:

Answer 21

• Usually temporary
• Positive, negative or a mixture of both
• Emotions can directly alter thought processes.
• They motivate behaviour.
• Emotions are passions that you feel (whether or not you want to

Question 22

Objective Experience of Emotions:

Answer 22

• Expressive displays
o Show feelings to others
o May be learned or innate

• Physiological responses
o Biological adjustments needed to perform the actions generated by emotions

Question 23

What are Cognitive Reactions?

Answer 23

• The primary components of emotion are the eliciting stimuli, cognitive appraisals, physiological arousal, and expressive and instrumental behaviours. Innate factors and learning play important roles in determining the arousal properties of stimuli.
• The cognitive component of the emotional experience involves the evaluative and personal appraisal of the eliciting stimuli.
• Cross-­‐cultural research indicates considerable agreement across cultures in the appraisals that evoke basic emotions but also some degree of variation in more complex appraisals.

Question 24

Psychological Reactions – the brain

Answer 24

• Our physiological responses in emotion are produced by the hypothalamus, the limbic system, the cortex, and the autonomic and endocrine systems.
• There appear to be two systems for emotional behaviour; one involving conscious processing by the cortex and the other involving unconscious processing by the amygdala.
• Negative emotions seem to reflect greater relative activation of the right hemisphere, whereas positive emotions are related to relatively greater activation in the left hemisphere.

Question 25

Explain the Autonomic Nervous System:

Answer 25

• Fight-­‐flight

• Autonomic nervous system
o Sympathetic system
o Parasympathetic system

Question 26

Explain Behavioural Reactions:

Answer 26

• There is an optimal level of arousal for the performance of any task. This optimal level varies with the complexity of the task; complex tasks have lower optimal levels.
• The behavioural component of emotions includes expressive and instrumental behaviours.
• The accuracy of people’s interpretation of these expressions is enhanced when situational cues are also available.
• Evolutionary theorists propose that certain fundamental emotional patterns are innate but agree that cultural learning can influence emotional expression.

Question 27

Taking Cues from our Body: James Lang Somatic Theory

Answer 27

• Early theorists suggested that emotions are the subjective experiences generated from physiological reactions
o We look to out body to know how we feel

• James Lang Somatic Theory: maintains that we first become aroused then judge what we are feeling.
o I’m happy because I smile
o I’m scared because I run

Question 28

Taking Cues from our Body: The Cannon-Bard Theory:

Answer 28

• The Cannon-­‐Bard theory proposes that arousal and cognition are independent and simultaneously triggered by the thalamus.
• We don’t know what emotion we are experiencing until we register our bodily reactions.

Question 29

Taking Cues from our Body: The Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Answer 29

• The Facial feedback Hypothesis
o Do we feel happy because we smile?
o Do we feel sad because we frown?

Question 30

Taking Cues from our Body: Strack et al (1988):

Answer 30

o Participants held a pen in their mouth

o Rated cartoons according to how funny they were

o Those in the teeth condition rated the cartoons significantly funnier than those in the lip condition.

• Facial feedback evidence provides some support for the James-­‐Lang Theory
o Problems
- There are many different identifiable emotions
- Similar physiological states can be associated with a range of different emotions
- Does not corroborate with the experience of emotion which often precedes any physical response.

o Critical role of cognition
- Appraisal of the situation and arousal.

Question 31

Taking Cues from our Body: Lazarus (2001):

Answer 31

• Lazarus (2001): According the Lazarus’s cognitive affective theory, appraisals trigger emotional arousal
o All emotional responses involve initial appraisal (whether we are aware of it or not).

Question 32

Taking Cues from our Body: Schachter (1966):

Answer 32

• Schachter (1966): according to Schlacter’s two factor theory of emotion, arousal tells us how strongly we are feeling while cognitions derived from situational cures help us label the specific emotion.

o The intensity of physiological arousal tells us how strongly we feel about something

o Situational cues and appraisal of these give us the information to label what it is we are feeling.

Question 33

Taking Cues from our Body: The Importance of appraisal

Answer 33

• The importance of appraisal
o The war arousal is interpreted and attributed will determine emotional reactions,
- E.g. a racing hart and rapid breathing may equally be attributed to being excited or anxious.

o Examining differences in the attribution of arousal
- Does arousal from one experience transfer to influence emotion in an independent situation.

Question 34

Taking Cues from our Body: Dutton and Aron (1974):

Answer 34

o Had male participants crossing a gorge via a:

• High, exposed suspension bridge
• Low stable wooden bridge

o They were met at the opposite side by a female researcher

• Write an imaginative story based on a picture (TAT).
• Rate the female researcher on attractiveness
• Researcher provided her contact number if they wanted information about the study’s results.

o Those who crossed the ‘dangerous’ bridge:

• Rated the female as more attractive
• Featured more sexual content in their story
• Were more likely to attempt to contact her subsequently.

o They suggested that men in particular may feel more comfortable attributing arousal to attraction that to fear of the situation.

Question 35

Taking Cues from our Body: Allen et al (1989)

Answer 35

• Allen et al (1989) replicated this effect
o Male participants told they were to receive either painful electric shocks or listen to a range of sounds.

• The cognitive attribution of physiologic states is important to determining emotional reactions
• More generally, cognitive theories suggest attribution is critical to shaping emotional experience:
o Not only in determining emotional reactions to physiological states but to the attribution and interpretation of
any event or situation

Question 36

Explain Emotions involve reciprocal relationships between: ….

and their FUNCTION

Answer 36

•	Emotions involve reciprocal relationships between
o	Eliciting stimuli
o	Cognitive appraisal
o	Physiological responses
o	Expressive behaviors
o	Instrumental behaviours

• Function: Emotions as Motivators
o Seek out those emotional states we identify as pleasant
o Attempt to avoid, eliminate or reduce the unpleasant

• Illustrate the functional benefits of emotions with reference to anxiety.

Question 37

What is Anxiety?

Answer 37

• Anxious apprehension (Barlow 1988)
o Future focused
o Concerned with the identification and reduction, elimination or avoidance of potential threats.

• Acts on a number of physiological and cognitive systems to enhance an individual’s ability and motivation to deal with potential threats.

• Is experienced as unpleasant
o Creates a desire to reduce or eliminate it

• It increases arousal and activates physiological systems which can facilitate actions

• Anxiety is usually experienced as aversive
o Like pain, when you are anxious you are likely to be motivated to eliminate the cause.

• Being anxious makes you not want to be anxious
o Can reduce anxiety by eliminating the threat posed by a future negative event (i.e. The cause of the anxiety)

• Anxiety can be very helpful.
o “Without anxiety little would be accomplished. The performance of athletes, entertainers, executives, artisans and students would suffer; creativity would diminish; crops might not be planted. And we would all achieve that idyllic state long sought after in our fast-­‐paced society of whiling away our lived under a shade tree. This would be deadly for the species as a nuclear war.” Barlow 2002

Question 38

• At what levels can anxiety be helpful?

Answer 38

• Too high:
o Overwhelmed
o Difficulty concentrating
o Incapable of meeting goals

• Too low:
o Communicates low risk
o Not motivated to act
o Low awareness of potential danger sources

• The optimum amount of anxiety and arousal for performance is dependent on the actions that need to be completed.
• Performance is generally best when arousal and anxiety are moderate

• Optimal arousal will depend on the complexity of the task being performed.
o Very simple tasks: high arousal will be beneficial
o More complex tasks: high arousal hinders performance

• Anxiety works well when it assists us to prepare for and avoid future threats

Question 39

When can Anxiety be UNHELPFUL?

Answer 39

• Anxiety can be unhelpful
o When the frequency, intensity and duration of anxiety is disproportionate to the threat posed by a situation.
o Leads to misappraisal of non-­‐threatening situations, stimuli or events as highly threatening.
o Leads to avoidance and withdrawal.

• Anxiety in the lead up to and during performance and social situations

• E.g. a job interview, presentation, public performance
o Motivates preparation
o Elevates arousal immediately prior

Question 40

Anxiety in social and performance situations can be problematic when:

Answer 40

o Highly frequent, persistent and severe:

• Occurs often and for long durations
• Extreme anxiety about being embarrassed or humiliated

o Occurs at inappropriate times
- Irrational – is not related to a legitimate source of danger

• Heightened social anxiety is associated with overestimating:
o The likelihood
o Severity
o Consequences of negative events

• Leads to avoidance of social/performance situations due to the fear of embarrassment and humiliation
o May miss out on education and job opportunities

• Vicious cycle of anxiety and avoidance
o Situation -> anxiety -> avoidance -> short term relief -> long term escalation -> increased fear, reduced confidence

Question 41

Explain Specific Fears and Phobias:

Answer 41

• It is highly adaptive to experience anxiety when confronted with certain situations and stimuli
• The physiological and cognitive changes that accompany anxiety will assist with limiting the danger poses by the potential threat.

• Anxiety reactions to specific stimuli and situations may be problematic when:
o Highly frequent, persistent and severe
- Occur for long durations
- Extreme anxiety about the feared situation
o Occurs at inappropriate times
- When there is no real threat

• Leads to avoidance of many situations/places due to anxiety about the feared object.

Question 42

Explain Treating Emotional Problems: such as ANXIETY

Answer 42

o Breaking the cycle of avoidance
- Graded exposure to feared situations/stimuli

o Addressing cognitive distortions regarding the feared situation/stimuli

• Assisting with correcting misappraisals of threat
• Helping people to identify and change biased patterns of thinking about the likelihood, severity, and consequences of feared situations

Question 43

Summary: Cognition vs Behaviour vs Physiology

Answer 43

• Emotions involve the mutual influence of cognition, behaviour and physiology.

• Are subjectively ‘felt’ and can be objectively observed
o Serving individual and communicative functions

• Cognitive appraisal of events and physical states directly influence emotional reactions

• Emotions can motivate adaptive responses to
o Attain positive outcomes
o Avoid or reduce negative outcomes

• Disturbance in emotional wellbeing fundamentally underpins many mental health problems.

Question 44

Cognitive Bias and Emotional Vulnerability: ANXIETY DISORDERS AND CLINICAL DEPRESSION

Answer 44

Anxiety Disorders and Clinical Depression
• Both types are very common
o Major depression: lifetime risk = 8-­‐17%
o Anxiety disorders: lifetime risk = 15-­‐25%

Question 45

Cognitive Bias and Emotional Vulnerability: Thought Content and Emotional Vulnerability

Answer 45

• Characteristic thoughts in dysfunctional anxiety/depression
o Anxiety: thoughts concerning imminent future danger
o Depression: thoughts concerning hopelessness and low esteem

• Two possible accounts for this
o Negative thinking is symptom of emotional dysfunction.
o Negative thought is cause of emotional dysfunction.

Question 46

Cognitive Bias and Emotion Vulnerability: The assessment of Interpretative Bias

Answer 46

• Self-­‐reported interpretation
o People with these disorders often have negative interpretations
o Limitations
- At best, the approach can reveal only participant’s beliefs about their likely patterns of interpretation.
- Impossible to dissociate response bias from genuine interpretations.
- Such data will always be susceptible to experimenter demand effects.

• Homophone spelling task
o Limitations
- Response bias/demands effects if both meanings are identified
o Researchers have sought to develop methodologies

Question 47

EXPLAIN Causation and Correlation

Answer 47

• Correlation doesn’t imply causation
• Interpretive bias may cause emotional vulnerability
• Emotional vulnerability may cause interpretive bias
• Another variable may cause emotional vulnerability and interpretive bias