Chapter 3: Genes, Environment and Behaviour

Question 1

What is the IMPLICIT MODEL? (3 major points)

Answer 1

• 1. There are genes that cause a particular brain structure of function, which causes us to behave in a particular way
• 2. Actions can be genetically predetermined.
• 3. This effects how we treat people: Jail or Hospital (the brain problem nullifies the responsibility for the action)

Question 2

GENETIC INFLUENCE ON BEHAVIOUR: who conducted experiments in 1860s on heredity?

Answer 2

Gregor Mendel (1860s) conducted experiments on heredity

Question 3

Describe Genotype vs Phenotype:

Answer 3

• Genotype: the specific genetic makeup of an individual present from conception
• Phenotype: the individual’s observable characteristics can be affected by both genes and by the environment
• Genotype and phenotype are not identical because some genes are dominant and some are recessive

• Dominant and displayed: gene received from both mother and father
• Recessive and not displayed: gene received from only one parent
o E.g. brown eyes dominant over blue eyes

Question 4

Describe Chromosomes vs Genes vs Alleles

Answer 4

• Chromosomes: double-­‐stranded and tightly coiled molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• Genes: biological units of heredity
• Alleles: alternative forms of a gene that produce different characteristics

Question 5

Define Polygenic Transmission

Answer 5

• Polygenic transmission: a number of gene types combine their influence to create a single phenotype

Question 6

Explain Nucleotide Bases: DNA: Gene: PROTEINS, No.s

Answer 6

• 1. All information of heredity is encoded in the combinations of four chemical bases – adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine
– that occur throughout the chromosome

• 2. The sequence of the four letters A, T, G, and C creates specific commands for every feature and function of your body.
• 3. The DNA portion of the chromosome carries the genes, the biological units of heredity
• 4. Each gene carries the ATGC codes for manufacturing specific proteins, as well as when and where in the body they will be made
• 5. These proteins can take many forms and functions, and underlie every bodily structure and process

• 6. With one exception, every cell with a nucleus in the human body has 46 chromosomes.
o Exception is the sex cell (egg or sperm) which has only 23
o At conception 23 from the egg combine with the 23 from the sperm to form a zygote, containing 46 chromosomes

Question 7

Define Behaviour Genetics

Answer 7

• Behaviour Genetics: How heredity, environmental and social factors influence psychological characteristics

o Also studies how these factors account for individual differences in behaviour

Question 8

Explain the Basic Probabilities of GENETIC SHARING

Answer 8

• Basic probabilities of genetic sharing:

o You sharing a particular gene with one parent: 0.5
 With one grandparent: 0.25

o You sharing the same gene with a sibling: 0.5
 With a half-­‐sibling: 0.25

o Identical twins have 1 probability of sharing a particular gene

Question 9

Explain Family Studies:

Answer 9

• Family studies: researchers study relatives to determine if the genetic similarity is related to similarity in a particular trait

o Genetic contribution indicated by the similarity between those closely related

Question 10

Explain Adoption Studies:

Answer 10

• Adoption studies: people who were adopted early in life are compared on some characteristic with both their biological parents, with whom they share genetic endowment, and with their adoptive parents, with whom they share no genes.

o If adoptive people are more similar to biological parent than adoptive parent, indicates a genetic influence on that trait. Inversely, this indicates environmental factors to be more important for that particular characteristic

Question 11

Explain Twin Studies:

Answer 11

• Twin studies: compare trait similarities in identical and fraternal twins

o Monozygotic/identical twins are genetically identical twins – (1 in 250 births):
 One sperm and egg; Zygote divides; Two zygotes with identical chromosomes

o Dizygotic twins (Fraternal twins-­‐ 1 in 150 births):
 share 50% genetic endowment like ordinary siblings
 Two eggs and two sperms, two zygotes with different chromosomes

o Comparing the two twin types can determine whether genes or the environment determine behaviour – but this is hard to do as both types of twins are usually raised in the same environment anyway

o Separate rearing compared to rearing together shows both genes and the environment influence behaviour

Question 12

Define HERITABILITY COEFFICIENT:

Answer 12

• Heritability coefficient: estimates the extent to which the differences or variation in a specific phenotypic characteristic within a group of people can be attributed to their differing genes.

Question 13

What is Concordance rates?

Answer 13

• Concordance rates: trait similarity

Question 14

What is Learning?

Answer 14

• Learning: is a process of personal adaptation

Question 15

What Behaviourisim?

Answer 15

• Behaviorism: laws of learning that apply to virtually all organisms

 Organism is initially a ‘blank slate’

Question 16

What is ETHOLOGY?

Adaptive significance vs. Fixed action pattern

Answer 16

• Ethology: evolutional differences between species

 Adaptive significance: behaviour influences chances of survival and reproduction
 Fixed action pattern: instinctive behaviour automatically triggered by a particular stimulus

Question 17

Explain FUNCTIONS OF BEHAVIOUR

Answer 17

• Functions of behaviour: adaptive significance – how behaviour influences an organism’s chances of survival and reproduction in its natural environment

Question 18

Explain FIXED ACTION PATTERNS

Answer 18

• Fixed action patterns: an unlearned response automatically triggered by a particular stimulus

o Modified by experience
o In many cases what appears to be instinctive behaviour actually involves learning

Question 19

Explain how the Environment shapes behaviour in two fundamental ways:

Answer 19

• Environment shapes behaviour in two fundamental ways:

1. Species adaptation: influence from environment through natural selection
2. Personal adaptation: our interactions with immediate and past environments

Question 20

Explain SHARED vs UNSHARED enviroments

Answer 20

• SHARED environments: people who also reside in the environment experience many of their features in common (e.g. family)
• UNSHARED experiences that are unique to us (e.g. an individual member outside of family)
• To examine the influence of these two environments, twin studies are ideal

Question 21

Explain HERITABILITY OF INTELLIGENCE:

Answer 21

• 1. Intelligence has a strong genetic basis, with heritability coefficients in the 0.5-­‐0.7 range. Shared family environment is also important, as are educational experiences
• 2. Personality has strong genetic contribution, though a lower heritability coefficient than intelligence. Shared family environment is secondary to unshared family environment as an environmental determinant of personality
• 3. Identical twins reared together have a high correlation of IQ scores (0.86)
• 4. If you rear them separately the correlation drops down slightly (0.75)
• 5. Siblings reared together (0.45)
• 6. Siblings reared apart (0.21)
• 7. Relates to Watson and behaviourism: he said he could rear any infant to become any profession, he failed to account for genetic similarity
• 8. Heritability of intelligence: more common genes= more similarity in IQ scores

Question 22

Explain ENVIROMENTAL DETERMINANTS of intelligence heritability.

Answer 22

• Heritability of intelligence: more common genes= more similarity in IQ scores

• Environmental determinants:
→ Shared family environment
→ Environmental enrichment and deprivation
→ Educational experiences

• •Heritability allows us to explain the variations between genes and people

Question 23

GENE-ENVIROMENT INTERACTION: Genetic, enviromental and social factors interact (2)

Answer 23

• Genetic, environmental and social factors interact

 Genetic factors influence how different people experience the same environment

 The environment can influence how genes express themselves

Question 24

How can genetic factors influence the enviroment in 3 ways.

Answer 24

• Genetic factors can influence the environment in 3 ways:

1. Genes shared by parents and children may be expressed in how the parents behave and in the environment they create
2. Genes may produce characteristics that influence how others respond to the person
3. People self-­‐select or create environments that are consistent with their genetic characteristics e.g. intelligent person seeks out intellectually stimulating situations

Question 25

How can Enviroment influence gene expression?

Answer 25

Environment can influence gene expression

 Reaction range: the range od possibilities that a genetic code allows

Question 26

Define Evolution:

Answer 26

• Evolution: change over time in the frequency with which particular genes – and the characteristics they produce – occur within an interbreeding population

Question 27

Define Mutations:

Answer 27

• Mutations: cause genetic variations to arise. They are random events and accidents in gene reproduction during the division of cells

 help create variation within a populations phenotype
 variation makes evolution possible

Question 28

Define Natural Selection:

Answer 28

• Natural selection: characteristics that increase the likelihood of survival and reproduction within a particular environment will be more likely to be preserved in the population and therefore will become more common in the species over time.

 for natural selection to work, there must be variation that influences survival or fertility

Question 29

Define Adapations:

Answer 29

• Adaptations: the products of natural selection

Question 30

Define Brain Evolution:

Answer 30

• Brain evolution – the brain has almost tripled in size since the early human ancestor Australopithecus (4 MYA)
• Brain evolution along with evoked culture is important in the development of adaptations

Question 31

Define Evoked Culture:

Answer 31

• Evoked culture: cultures may themselves be the product of biological mechanisms that evolved to meet specific adaptation challenges faced by specific groups of people in specific places at specific times.

Question 32

What is Human Nature?

examples?

Answer 32

• “Human nature” is the expression of inborn biological tendencies that have evolved through natural selection. Some examples include:

1. Infants are born with the innate ability to acquire any language spoken in the world
2. Newborns are prewired to perceive specific stimuli
3. At one week of age, humans demonstrate primitive maths skills – such as distinguishing between two or three objects
4. Humans tend to be altruistic to each other
5. Tend to have a need to belong, and fear being ostracised from a group
6. There is evidence showing basic emotions are universally recognised – smiling indicates happiness

Question 33

Explain SEXUALITY AND MATE PREFERENCES

SEXUAL STRATEGIES THEORY? SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORY?

Answer 33

 Compared with women, men show more interest in short-­‐term mating

 Two opposing theories on mating:
o SEXUAL STRATEGIES theory – mating strategies and preferences reflect inherited tendencies, shaped over the ages in response to different types of adaptive problems that men and women faced
o SOCIAL STRUCTURE theory – men and women display different mating preferences not because nature compels them to, but because society guides them into different social roles

Question 34

Explain the Evolutionary Concept …and BIG FIVE TRAIT DIMENSIONS.

OCEAN MODEL?

Answer 34

o Evolutionary concept strategic pluralism suggests multiple – even contradictory – behavioural strategies might be adaptive in certain environments and would therefore be maintained through natural selection.

o This is based on the “Big Five” genetic trait dimensions: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and openness to experience (OCEAN model)
 These traits are universal to all cultures and thus they are part of the leading trait theory

Question 35

Shared vs Unshared: effect of enviroment and personality development

Answer 35

o Environment and personality development:

 SHARED environment contributes very little

 UNSHARED environment is important