Chapter 5 - Motivation, Emotion, and Stress

Question 1

Extrinsic Motivation vs. Intrinsic Motivation

Answer 1

• External forces, coming from outside oneself, create extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation can include rewards for showing a desired behavior or avoiding punishment if the desired behavior is not achieved.
  
  • Ex: Working hard for praise from boss or doing chores to avoid punishment. Competition is a strong form of external motivation.
• Motivation that comes from within oneself is referred to as intrinsic motivation. This can be driven by interest in a task or pure enjoyment. A student who takes interest in the subject and has the goal of mastering the content is driven by intrinsic motivation, while achieving high grades is extrinsic.

Question 2

Instinct Theory of Motivation

Answer 2

• An instinct is an innate, fixed pattern of behavior in response to a stimulus. It may be consistent throughout life, or it may appear or disappear with time.
• According to the instinct theory of motivation, people are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionarily programmed instincts.

Question 3

Arousal Theory of Motivation

Answer 3

• Arousal is the psychological and physiological state of being awake and reactive to stimuli.
• Arousal theory states that people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal: seeking to increase arousal when it falls below their optimal level, and to decrease arousal when it rises above their optimum level.

Question 4

Yerkes-Dodson Law

(Arousal Theory)

Answer 4

• Postulates a U-Shaped function between the level of arousal and performance
• This law states that performance is worse at extremely high and low levels of arousal and optimal at some intermediate level.
• The optimal level of arousal varies between different types of tasks: lower levels are optimal for highly cognitive tasks, while higher levels are optimal for activities that require physical endurance and stamina. Further, simple tasks generally require slightly higher arousal than complex tasks.

Question 5

Yerkes-Dodson Graph

Answer 5

Question 6

Drive Reduction Theory

Answer 6

• Explains that motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states. Certain physiological conditions result in a negative internal environment. This internal environment then drives motivation and seeks homeostasis in order to reduce the uncomfortable internal state.

Question 7

Drives

Answer 7

• Drives are defined as internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals. Drives help humans survive by creating an uncomfortable state, ensuring motivation to eliminate this state or to relieve the internal tension created by unmet needs.
• Primary Drives: including the need for food, water, and warmth, motivate us to sustain bodily processes in homeostasis.
• Secondary Drives: drives that motivate us to fulfill non-biological processes. These drives are thought to stem from learning. Secondary drives also include certain emotions, like the desire for nurturing, love, achievement, and aggression.

Question 8

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Answer 8

1. Self-Actualization: the need to realize one’s fullest potential
2. Esteem: self-esteem, confidence, achievement
3. Love/Belonging: friendship, family, sexual intamacy
4. Safety
5. Physiological: Breathing, Food, Water, Sex, Sleep

• The most primitive, essential, and important needs are at the bottom. (2-5 correspond to physiological needs, safety and security, love and belonging, and self-esteem).
• If the lowest level of need is not met, motivation to meet that need will be the highest priority. Once that need is met, if additional needs exist, they will be satisfied based on priority.

Question 9

Self-Determination Theory

Answer 9

• Need-based motivational theory
• Emphasizes the role of 3 universal needs: autonomy (the need to be in control of one’s actions and ideas), competance (the need to complete and excel at difficult tasks), and relatedness (the need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships).

Question 10

4 Primary Factors that Influence Motivation

Answer 10

1. Instincts
2. Arousal
3. Drives
4. Needs

Question 11

Incentive Theory

Answer 11

• Explains that behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but by the desire to pursue rewards and to avoid punishments.

Question 12

Expectancy-Value Theory

Answer 12

• States that the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual’s expectation of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which he or she values succeeding at the goal.

Question 13

Opponent-Process Theory

Answer 13

• A theory of motivation that explains continuous drug use.
• This theory explains that when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology.
• This theory can also explain tolerance, a decrease in perceived drug effect over time.

Question 14

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Answer 14

• A stimulus results first in physiological arousal, which leads to a secondary response in which the emotion is labeled.
• James believed that when peripheral organs receive info and respond, that response is then labeled as an emotion by the brain.
• So: stimulus leads to physiological arousal ==> Arousal leads to cognitive labeling of emotion ==> “I must be angry because my skin is hot and my blood pressure is high” ==> Requires connection between sympathetic nervous system and brain

Question 15

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Answer 15

• A person will respond with action after experiencing the emotion both mentally and physically
• When exposed to a stimulus, sensory information is received and sent to both the cortex and the sympathetic nervous system simultaneously by the thalamus.
• Thus, cognitive and physiological components of emotion occur simultaneously and result in the behavioral component of emotion, or action: “I am afraid because I see a snake and my heart is racing… let me out of here!”
• So, action is secondary response to stimulus.

Question 16

Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion

Answer 16

• Also termed the cognitive arousal theory or the two-factor theory
• States that both arousal and the labeling of arousal based on environment must occur in order for an emotion to be experienced: “I am excited because my heart is racing and everyone else is happy.”

Question 17

What are the 3 elements of emotion?

Answer 17

1. Physiological Response: (autonomic nervous system), heart rate, breathing rate, skin temperature, blood pressure
2. Behavioral Response: facial expressions, body language
3. Cognitive Response: subjective interpretation, memories of past experiences, perception of cause of emotion

Question 18

What are the 7 universal emotions?

Answer 18

1. Happiness
2. Sadness
3. Contempt
4. Surprise
5. Fear
6. Disgust
7. Anger

Question 19

What is the function of each part of the limbic system?

Answer 19

• Amygdala: involved with attention and emotions (specifically fear), helps interpret facial expressions, and is part of the intrinsic memory system for emotional memory.
• Thalamus: sensory processing station
• Hypothalamus: releases neurotransmitters that affect mood and arousal
• Hippocampus: creates long-term explicit memories (episodic memories)
• Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex: involved in decision-making and controlling emotional responses from the amygdala

Question 20

Cognitive Appraisal

Answer 20

• Cognitive Appraisal: the subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress.
• There are 2 stages:
  
  • Stage 1, or primary appraisal, is the initial evaluation of the environment and the associated threat. This appraisal can be identified as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful. If primary appraisal reveals a threat, stage 2 appraisal begins.
  • Secondary appraisal is directed at evaluating whether the organism can cope with the stress. This appraisal involves the evaluation of 3 things: harm, or damage caused by the event; threat, potential for future damage; and challenge, potential to overcome the event.

Question 21

Stressor

Answer 21

• A stressor is a biological element, external condition, or event that leads to a stress response.
• Stressors are classified as either causing distress or causing eustress. Distress occurs when experiencing unpleasant stressors, whereas eustress is a result of positive conditions.

Question 22

General Adaptation Syndrome Explanation/Graph

Answer 22

• First is alarm, or the initial reaction to a stressor and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system.
• The next stage is resistance, in which the continuous release of hormones allows the sympathetic nervous system to remain engaged to fight the stressor.
• Last, a person will experience exhaustion when the body can no longer maintain an elevated response with sympathetic nervous system activity.

Question 23

What are the 3 stages of the general adaptation syndrome? What physiological changes are evident in each stage?

Answer 23

1. Alarm: Activation of sympathetic nervous system, release of ACTH and cortisol, stimulation of adrenal medulla to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine.
2. Resistance: Continuous release of hormones activates sympathetic nervous system.
3. Exhaustion: Can no longer maintain elevated sympathetic nervous system activity, more susceptible to illness and medical conditions, organ systems deteriorate, death