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MCAT Psych/Soc. > Chapter 1 > Flashcards

Chapter 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Phrenology

A

Basic idea that if a particular trait was well developed, then the part of the brain responsible for that trait would expand. This expansion would cause a bulge on the head.

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2
Q

Extirpation/Ablation

A

In extirpation, various parts of the brain are surgically removed and the behavioral consequences are observed.

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3
Q

Functionalism

A

A system of thought in psychology that studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments.

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4
Q

Broca’s Area

A

Region in the frontal lobe (left side) that impacts speech production.

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5
Q

3 kinds of nerve cells in the nervous system?

A

1) Sensory Neurons: transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain. Sensory neurons are AFFERENT neurons (they ascend in the cord toward the brain).
2) Motor neurons: transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands. Motor neurons are EFFERENT neurons (exit the cord on their way to the rest of the body).
3) Interneurons: found between other neurons and are the most numerous. Located predominantly in the brain and spinal cord and are linked to reflexive behavior.

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6
Q

The Nervous System

A

See Image

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7
Q

Somatic Nervous System

A
  • Consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints, and muscles
  • Sensory neurons transmit information through afferent fibers
  • Motor impulses travel along efferent fibers
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8
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A
  • Generally regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and glandular secretions
  • The ANS manages the involuntary muscles associated with many internal organs and glands
  • ANS also helps regulate body temperature by activating sweating or piloerection
  • These functions are automatic, or independent of conscious control
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9
Q

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A
  • Main role is to conserve energy
  • “Rest-and-Digest”
  • Functions: constricts pupils, stimulates flow of saliva, constricts bronchi, slows heartbeat, manages digestion by stimulating peristalsis and exocrine secretions, stimulates bile release, contracts bladder
  • Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter responsible for parasympathetic responses in the body
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10
Q

Sympathetic Nervous System

A
  • Activated by stress
  • “Fight-or-Flight”
  • Functions: dilates pupils (this maximizes light intake), inhibits salivation, relaxes bronchi, accelerates heart rate, stimulates sweating or piloerection, inhibits peristalsis and secretion, stimulates glucose production and release, secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline, inhibits bladder contraction, stimulates orgasm, releases epinephrine into the bloodstream
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11
Q

3 Basic Subdivisions of the Brain

A
  1. Hindbrain
  2. Midbrain
  3. Forebrain

**Hindbrain and midbrain form the brainstem

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12
Q

Hindbrain

A
  • Located where the brain meets the spinal cord
  • Structures:
    • Medulla Oblongata : responsible for regulating vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
    • Pons and Cerebellum: Pons contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and medulla, key role in sleep and dreaming (sleep ‘pon the bed). Cerebellum helps maintain posture/balance and coordinates body movements (bella balance).
    • Reticular Formation: Arousal and alertness
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13
Q

Midbrain

A
  • Above the hindbrain
  • Receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body
  • Superior Colliculus: receives visual sensory input
  • Inferior Colliculus: receives sensory information from the auditory system
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14
Q

Forebrain

A
  • Above the midbrain
  • Telencephalon: cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system
  • Diencephalon: thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland
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15
Q

Parts of the Forebrain: Thalamus

A
  • Serves as an important relay station for incoming sensory information, including all senses except for smell
  • After receiving incoming sensory impulses, the thalamus sorts and transmits them to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex
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16
Q

Parts of the Forebrain: Hypothalamus

A
  • Subdivided into the lateral, ventromedial, and anterior hypothalamus
  • Serves homeostatic functions, which are self-regulatory processes that maintain a stable balance within the body
  • Primary regulator of the ANS and is important in drive behaviors: hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior
  • Receptors regulate metabolism, temperature, and water balance
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17
Q

Lateral Hypothalamus

A
  • Referred to as the hunger center because it has special receptors thought to detect when the body needs more food or fluids
  • Lateral Hypothalamus triggers eating and drinking
  • Mnemonic: when the Lateral Hypothalamus (LH) is destroyed, one Lacks Hunger
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18
Q

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

A
  • “Satiety Center”
  • Provides signals to stop eating
  • Brain lesions in this area usually lead to obesity
  • Mnemonic: when the VentroMedial Hypothalamus (VMH) is destroyed, one is Very Much Hungry
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19
Q

Anterior Hypothalamus

A
  • Controls sexual behavior
  • Damage to the anterior hypothalamus leads to permanent inhibition of sexual activity
  • Also regulates sleep and body temperature
  • Mnemonic: when the Anterior hypothalamus is destroyed one is Asexual
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20
Q

Parts of the Forebrain: Posterior Pituitary and Pineal Gland

A
  • Posterior Pituitary: the site of release for the hypothalamic hormones antidiuretic hormone (ADH, also called vasopressin) and oxytocin
  • Pineal Gland: secretes a hormone called melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms
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21
Q

Parts of the Forebrain: Basal Ganglia

A
  • Coordinates muscle movement as they receive information from the cortex and relay this information to the brain and spinal cord.
  • Helps make our movements smooth and our posture steady.
  • Parkinson’s Disease is associated with destruction of portions of the basal ganglia. Jerky movements and uncontrolled resting tremors.
  • BG may also play a role in schizophrenia and OCD
22
Q

Parts of the Forebrain: Limbic System

A
  • Primarily associated with emotion and memory
  • Primary components: septal nuclei, amygdala, and hippocampus
23
Q

Septal Nuclei, Amygdala, and Hippocampus

A
  • Septal Nuclei: one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain. Association between these nuclei and addictive behavior.
  • Amygdala: plays an important role in defensive and aggressive behaviors, including fear and rage
  • Hippocampus: vital role in learning and memory processes, helps consolidate information to form long-term memories
  • All 3 located make up the Limbic System
24
Q

Anterograde Amnesia vs. Retrograde Amnesia

A
  • Anterograde Amnesia: characterized by not being able to establish new long-term memories, whereas memory for events that occurred before brain injury is usually intact.
  • Retrograde Amnesia: refers to memory loss of events that transpired before brain injury.
25
Q

Parts of the Brain: Cerebral Cortex

A
  • Outer surface of the brain, sometimes called the neocortex
  • The cortex has numerous bumps and folds called gyri and sulci (provides greater surface area)
  • Cortex is divided into 4 lobes:
    • Frontal
    • Parietal
    • Occipital
    • Temporal
26
Q

Frontal Lobe

A
  • Executive Function
  • Two Basic Regions:
    • Prefrontal Cortex: manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions. Damage may lead to impulsiveness or less control of behavior.
    • Primary Motor Cortex: initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles.
27
Q

Parietal Lobe

A
  • Contains the somatosensory cortex and is involved in somatosensory information processing.
  • Destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
  • The central region of the parietnal lobe is associated with spatial processing and manipulation.
28
Q

Occipital Lobe

A
  • Contain the visual cortex (striate cortex)
29
Q

Temporal Lobe

A
  • Contains the auditory cortex, the primary site of most sound processing, including speech, music, etc.
  • Wernicke’s Area: associated with language reception and comprehension
30
Q

Contralaterally vs. Ipsilaterally

A
  • Contralaterally: neurons on the left side of the brain activate movements on the right side of the body, and vice versa.
  • Ipsilaterally: cerebral hemispheres communicate with the same side of the body.
31
Q

Acetylcholine

A
  • Neurotransmitter found in both the central and peripheral nervous system
  • In PNS, it is used to transmit nerve impulses to the muscles
  • Used by the parasympathetic nervous system
  • In CNS, it has been linked to attention and arousal
  • Loss of cholinergic neurons connecting with the hippocampus is associated with Alzheimer’s disease, an illness resulting in progressive and incurable memory loss.
32
Q

Epinephrine (adrenaline) and Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

A
  • Catecholamines (play important roles in the experience of emotions)
  • They are involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness
  • Primary neurotransmitter of the sympathetic nervous system, so they promote the fight-or-flight response
  • Epinephrine is more often secreted from the adrenal medulla to act systemically as a hormone
  • Low levels of norephinephrine are associated with depression; high levels with anxiety and mania
33
Q

Dopamine

A
  • A catecholamine that plays an important role in movement and posture
  • High concentrations normally found in the basal ganglia
  • Imbalances in dopamine transmission have been found to play a role in schizophrenia
  • Parkinson’s Disease is associated with a loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia
34
Q

Serotonin

A
  • Generally thought to play roles in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming
  • Also thought to play a role in depression and mania. An oversupply is thought to produce manic states; an undersupply is thought to produce depression.
35
Q

GABA, Glycine, and Glutamate

A
  • GABA produces inhibitory post-synaptic potentials and is thought to play an important role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain. GABA exerts its effects by causing hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane.
  • Glycine can serve as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS by increasing chloride influx into the neuron.
  • Glutamate acts as an excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS. Brain excitation.
  • GABA + Glycine = Brain “stabilization”
36
Q

Endorphins

A
  • Natural painkillers produced in the brain
  • Have actions similar to morphne or other opiods
37
Q

The Endocrine System

A
  • Uses hormones
  • Somewhate slower than nervous system because hormones travel through the bloodstream
38
Q

Pituitary Gland

A
  • 2 parts:
    • Anterior pituitary: FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone), LH (luteinizing hormone), ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone), TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone), prolactin, endorphins, GH (growth hormone)
    • Posterior Pituitary: ADH (antidiuretic hormone), oxytocin
39
Q

Adrenal Glands

A
  • 2 parts:
    • Adrenal Medulla: releases epinephrine and norepinephrine as part of the sympathetic nervous system
    • Adrenal Cortex: produces many hormones called corticosteroids, including the stress hormone cortisol. Adrenal cortex also contributes to sexual functioning by producing sex hormones, such as testosterone (higher levels of testosterone increases aggressive behavior) and estrogen.
40
Q

Innate Behavior

A
  • Genetically programmed as a result of evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience
41
Q

Learned Behaviors

A
  • Not based on heredity but instead on experience and environment
42
Q

Adaptive Value

A
  • The extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species, thus leading to adaptation through natural selection.
43
Q

Nature vs. Nurture

A
  • Nature: defined as heredity, or the influence of inherited characteristics on behavior.
  • Nurture: refers to the influence of environment and physical surroundings on behavior.
  • It is a classic debate regarding the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to an individuals traits. For most traits, both play a role.
44
Q

Family Studies

A
  • Look at the relative frequency of a trait within a family compared to the general population.
  • Limited because families share both genetics and environment.
  • Cannot distinguish shared environmental factors from genetic factors.
45
Q

Twin Studies

A
  • Compare concordance rates for a trait between monozygotic (MZ, identical) and dizygotic (DZ, fraternal) twins.
  • Better able to distinguish the relative effects of shared environment and genetics.
46
Q

Concordance Rates

A
  • Refer to the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait.
  • MZ are genetically identical (share 100% of their genes)
  • DZ share ~50% of their genes
  • To better measure genetic effects relative to environmental effects, researchers compare traits in twins raised together to twins raised apart.
  • One study of personality characteristics showed that MZ twins raised in separate families were still more similar than DZ twins raised together.
47
Q

Adoption Studies

A
  • Compare similarities between adopted children and their adoptive parents, relative to similarities with their biological parents.
48
Q

Reflex

A
  • A behavior that occurs in response to a given stimulus without higher cognitive input
49
Q

Rooting Reflex in Babies

A
  • The automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek
50
Q

Moro Reflex in Babies

A
  • Infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting their arms and crying.
  • Baby has a sensation of falling.
51
Q

Babinski Reflex in Babies

A
  • The big toe is extended and the other toes fan in response to the brushing of the sole of the foot.
52
Q

Grasping Reflex in Babies

A
  • Infant closes fingers around an object placed in the hand

MCAT Psych/Soc. (14 decks)

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