Chapter 12 - Social Stratification

Question 1

Social Class

Answer 1

• Defined as a category of people who share a similar socioeconomic position in society
• It is important to keep in mind that socioeconomic status is not only determined by merit (achieved status), but also external characteristics or outward appearances like skin color and gender (ascribed status).

Question 2

Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Answer 2

• Social stratification is related to one’s socioeconomic status (SES), which may depend on ascribed or achieved status.
• Ascribed status derives from clearly identifiable characteristics such as age, gender, and skin color. Involuntary.
• Achieved status is acquired via direct, individual efforts. Obtained through hard work and merit.

Question 3

Prestige and Power

Answer 3

• Prestige refers to the amount of positive regard society has for a given person or idea.
• Power can be described as the ability to affect other’s behavior through real or perceived rewards and punishments, and is based on the unequal distribution of valued resources. Power defines the relationship between individuals, groups, and social institutions. Power creates worldwide social inequalities as people tend to fall somewhere between the “haves” and the “have-nots”

Question 4

Marxist Theory

Answer 4

• Proposes that the “have-nots”, called the proletariat, could overthrow the “haves”, called the bourgeoisie, as well as the entire capitalist economy by developing class consciousness.
• Class consciousness refers to the organization of the working class around shared goals and recognition of a need for collective political action. The one majore barrier to class consciousness was false consciousness, a misperception of one’s actual position within society.

Question 5

Anomie and Strain Theory

Answer 5

• Early sociologists explained that social inequality is further accelerated by what is called anomie. Anomie refers to a lack of social norms, or the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and society.
• Strain theory focuses on how anomic conditions can lead to deviance. Anomic conditions include excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation; these all erode social solidarity.
• **Anomic conditions in postindustrial modern life have accelerated the decline of social inclusion and, as a result, have further obstructed opportunities to acquire social capital.

Question 6

Social Capital

Answer 6

• Social capital can be considered the investments people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards; the greater the investment, the higher the level of social integration (peaceful movement into mainstream society) and inclusion.
• One of the main forms of social capital is the social network. Social networks can create 2 types of social inequality: situational (socioeconomic advantage) and positional (based on how connected one is within a network, and one’s centrality within that network). Inequality in networks creates and reinforces privilege, or inequality in opportunity.
• Low social capital leads to greater social inequality. If social capital refers to the benefits one receives from group association, cultural capital refers to the benefits one receives from knowledge, abilities, and skills.

Question 7

Intersectionality

Answer 7

• The compounding of disadvantage seen in individuals who belong to more than one oppressed group.

Question 8

Key Concept

Answer 8

• Social stratification or, more properly, social inequality, remains higher among certain disadvantaged groups than others, including racial and ethnic minorities (Hispanics and African Americans), female-headed families, and the elderly.

Question 9

Social Mobility

Answer 9

• In a class system, social mobility is typically the result of an economic and occupational structure that allows one to acquire higher-level employment opportunities given proper credentials and experience requirements.

Question 10

Intragenerational vs. Intergenerational

Answer 10

• Intragenerational changes in social status happen within a person’s lifetime.
• Intergenerational changes are from parents to children.

Question 11

Meritocracy

Answer 11

• Based on intelletual talent and achievement, and is a means for a person to advance up the social ladder. Merit does not always guarantee positive social mobility.
• Some fear that America’s meritocratic system is quickly becoming a plutocracy, or a rule by the upper classes.

Question 12

Vertical Mobility and Horizontal Mobility

Answer 12

• Upward and downward mobility both refer to patterns of vertical mobility, or movement from one social class to another.
• Horizontal mobility is a change in occupation or lifestyle that remains within the same social class.
  
  • Ex: A construction worker who switches jobs to work in custodial services

Question 13

Poverty

Answer 13

• Defined by low socioeconomic status and a lack of possessions or financial resources.
• Poverty can be handed down from generation to generation, and can be defined on its own terms or in comparison to the rest of the population.

Question 14

Social Reproduction

Answer 14

• Social inequality, especially poverty, can be reproduced or passed on from one generation to the next. This idea is referred to as social reproduction. The lifestyle of poverty, powerlessness, isolation, and even apathy is handed down from one generation to another as a feature of the society. However, there are many other factors that contribute to poverty.

Question 15

Structural Poverty

Answer 15

• Based in the concept of “holes” in the structure of society rather than poverty due to the actions of the individual.
• Proponents of structural poverty argue that the same individuals do not by necessity occupy these “holes” from year to year, but the percentage of a society that falls under the poverty line stays relatively constant due to their existence.

Question 16

Absolute and Relative Poverty

Answer 16

• On an absolute level, poverty is a socioeconomic condition in which people do not have enough money or resources to maintain a quality of living that includes basic life necessities such as shelter, food, clothing, and water. Applies across locations, countries, and cultures.
• Poverty can also be defined as relative, in which one is poor in comparison to the larger population in which they live.

Question 17

Social Exclusion

Answer 17

• Social exclusion can arise from this sense of powerlessness when poor individuals feel segregated and isolated from society.
• Disadvantaged groups can experience magnified feelings of alienation and powerlessness when living in an affluent community. These are similar to anomic conditions.

Question 18

Spatial Inequality

Answer 18

• Spatial inequality focuses on social stratification across territories and their populations.
• Examining space helps to illuminate social inequalities because it attends to how geography influences social processes.
• Space also channels inequalities and can even amplify their effects, particularly poverty. This can lead to population segregation and the formation or expansion of ghettoes or slums. Space itself can also create social inequalities.

Question 19

Suburbanization, Urban Decay, Urban Renewal, Gentrification

Answer 19

• The overall greater concentration of poor individuals in urban centers helps to explain suburbanization, or the migration pattern of the middle classes to suburban communities.
• Suburbanization can also lead to urban decay, in which a previously functional portion of a city deteriorates and becomes decrepit over time.
• This process can spontaneously reverse in the process of urban renewal, in which city land is reclaimed and renovated for public or private use.
• Urban renewal is often fueled by gentrification, when upper and middle class populations begin to purchase and renovate neighborhoods in deteriorated areas, displacing the low SES population.

Question 20

World System Theory

Answer 20

• The world system theory categorizes countries and emphasizes the inequalities of the division of labor at the global level.
• Core nations focus on higher skills, and higher paying productions, while exploiting peripheral nations for their lower-skilled productions. Semi-peripheral nations are midway between the two – these nations work toward becoming core nations, while having many characteristics of peripheral nations.

Question 21

How does social capital affect social cohesion?

Answer 21

• The less social capital a person has (reduced network equality and equality of opportunity), the more social inequality. This, in turn, decreases social cohesion.

Question 22

Epidemiological Terms

Answer 22

• Incidence is defined as the number of new cases of an illness per population at risk in a given amount of time.
• Prevalence is a measure of the number of cases of an illness overall – whether new or chronic – per population in a given amount of time.
• Morbidity is the burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease
• Mortality refers to deaths caused by a given disease.

Question 23

Health is dependent on geographic, social, and economic factors:

Answer 23

• The second sickness refers to an exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice
• Poverty is associated with worse health outcomes (decreased life expectancy, higher rates of diseases/suicides/homicides/infant mortality rates)
• Certain racial and ethnic minorities have worse health profiles than others. African Americans are the worst off; white Americans, Native Americans, and Hispanic Americans are next; and Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders have the best health profiles.

Question 24

Gender-Related Health Disparities

Answer 24

• Females have better health profiles than males. Female life expectancy has been higher than males.
• Males far less likely to seek medical attention than females.
• While women show better mortality rates, this is not the case when it comes to morbidity rates for certain acute and chronic diseases. Women tend to suffer more from illnesses and disabilities than men, but their conditions are less often life threatening.
• Men are considered to be bigger risk-takers and are more likely to be employed in dangerous jobs.

Question 25

Healthcare access and quality differ across the population:

Answer 25

• Low-income groups and racial and ethnic minorities (specifically, African Americans, Asian Americans, Native Americans, and Hispanic Americans) receive worse care than white Americans.
• Biases against overweight or obese patients are associated with lower-quality treatment, including less preventative care and fewer screenings. This causes doctor distrust and more likely to switch doctors repeatedly.
• Women tend to have better access to healthcare and utilize more healthcare resources than men.
• LGBT men and women may have barriers to care due to prejudices, discrimination, and homophobia.

Question 26

What is the relationship between class and healthcare disparities?

Answer 26

• Low-income groups have worse access to healthcare services and worse healthcare quality. Poor Americans are less likely to be insured and consequently are less likely to seek medical attention until conditions have become extremely serious, thereby limiting available interventions. As a result, morbidity and mortality rates are highest among low-income groups.