Chapter 5 - Inequality Based on Age

Question 1

Population Trends

Answer 1

The senior population (aged 65+) has been increasing steadily over the past 40 years. (StatsCan 2012. Canada Year Book 2012)
From 1971to2011, the proportion of seniors in the population grew from 8% to 14%.
The proportion of seniors will rise to 25% of the population by 2050.
From 2011 to 2016, Canada registered the largest increase in the proportion of seniors since Confederation.
It was the first time that the census enumerated more seniors (5.9 million) than children 14 years of age and younger (5.8 million).
Factors: declining family size; increased life expectancy; regional differences; implications for social spending and the economy.

Question 2

Constructing Age

Answer 2

Pre-modern thought:
Ageing was a decline but not a pathology.
integral to life, not a distinct stage within it
imbued with spiritual meaning, status

Modern thought:
• ageing as disorder, disability, passage to death
senescence = the biological aging of an organism as it lives beyond its maturity, usually accompanied by organic changes

Question 3

Ageism and Age-Based Myths - Myth 1

Answer 3

Seniors tend to be incapacitated physically and mentally.
Reporting of good health declines with age, BUT half of those with a university degrees report very good health (Kendall, p. 93).
Dementia and disability are not an inevitable part of ageing.

Question 4

Ageism and Age-Based Myths - Myth 2

Answer 4

Myth 2: Seniors have little to contribute to society.

BUT they often continue to work and to pay income tax; contribute to their children’s incomes; make significant shopping decisions; some are high-end consumers; often own their own homes
electoral power = about 60% of all ballots cast are by those age 65+

Question 5

Ageism and Age-Based Myths - Myth 3

Answer 5

Myth 3: Seniors are dependent on public transfers and residential facilities.

BUT on average, Canadian workers have family disposable incomes at age 75 = 80% of their incomes at age 55 (StatsCan 1983-2004; Kendall p. 92)
95% of those 65+ live in private HHs (K, p. 95)
even for those 85+, only about 1/4 of the men and 1/3 of the women live in institutions (K, p. 95)
public/private housing options vary with income

Question 6

Ageism and Age-Based Myths - Myth 4

Answer 6

Myth 4: Seniors’ quality of life is poor.

BUT living alone ≠ isolation. Gilmour (2012) found:
	At least weekly participation in: 
family or friendship activities 
church or religious activities 
sports or physical activities
other recreational activities

At least monthly participation in: educational and cultural activities service club or fraternal organization activities neighbourhood, community or professional association activities volunteer or charity work 

80% of seniors were frequent participants in at least one social activity.
(“Exclusion of online activity in this study may underestimate seniors’ social participation.”)

Question 7

Ageism and Age-Based Myths - Myth 5

Answer 7

Myth 5: Seniors are costly to society.

More people of working age will be needed to help pay for the pensions and benefits for a growing number of elders
Elderly-dependency ratio (seniors/100 workers) = 20 in 2000 rising to 44 in 2040 (Kendall p. 102)

Q: Will their costs overwhelm the system?
A: measures have been taken to mitigate this, eg. federal and provincial claw backs to Old Age Security; RRSPs; working past 65; changes to pension programs (Kendall, p. 102-3)
Per-person spending for seniors increases with age:
Age 65–69: $6,424
Age 70–74: $8,379
Age 75–79: $11,488
Age 80 and older: $21,150

BUT:
The share of public-sector health dollars spent on Canadian seniors has not changed significantly over the past decade and a half—from 44% in 2000 to 46% in 2014.
Overall, population aging is a “modest but steady driver of increasing health care costs, estimated at 1% (approximately $2 billion) per year.”

Q: What about healthcare costs for seniors?
Seniors account for about 1/3 of all public spending on healthcare (Kendall, p. 93)

Question 8

Inequalities

Answer 8

1. Workplace Discrimination
2. Retirement and Income Security
   income from govt pension, private pensions, savings, family
   private sources = savings, employer-sponsored private pension plans, private investments, RRSPs
   public sources = Old Age Security (OAS) and CPP at age 67; Guaranteed Income Supplement (GIS) at age 65; QPP payments at age 60 (but increases at age 65)
   These progressive programs redistribute income to Canadian seniors and prevent (most) poverty.
3. Elder Abuse
   Typically, elders are mistreated in their own home by a spouse, sibling, child, friend, or trusted caregiver; also by staff in facilities.
   Public Health Agency of Canada 2012 reported physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional or psychological abuse, neglect, abandonment, and financial or material exploitation.
   StatsCan shows between 4-10% of elders suffer abuse; Cdn Assn of Retired Persons/Cdn Assn for the Fifty-Plus (CARP) “believes the real figures may be much higher than 8-10%.” (http://www.carp.ca/2016/10/14/elder-abuse-widespread-problem/)

Question 9

Death and Dying

Answer 9

Frameworks:
Stage-based approach = denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance
Trajectories of Grief = resilience, recovery, chronic dysfunction, delayed grief
Dying Trajectory = focuses on perceived course of dying
Task-based Approach = Daily activities can still be enjoyed: physical, psychological, social, spiritual tasks

Question 10

Solutions to Problems of Aging

Answer 10

Micro-level: personal efforts to adapt
“A longitudinal study of men and women between 70-79 found that regular physical activity, higher numbers of ongoing positive social relationships, and a sense of self-efficacy enhanced physical and cognitive functioning” (Seeman & Adler 1998 cited in Mooney)

Mid-range level: CARP has 400,000 members
activism, eg. The Raging Grannies

Macro-level: government legislation and policy, eg. pension funds; long-range financial planning; investment in home care and community care; residential facilities; gender equity policies

Question 11

Functionalism

Answer 11

Disengagement Theory = Seniors’ departure from the workforce is natural and functional
Due to senescence
Turnover permits jobs to open up to younger workers

Criticism = Disengagement may be dysfunctional for society, especially if government pension funds are strained; many seniors want to work

Question 12

Conflict Theory

Answer 12

Seniors do not choose to leave the workforce, but are pushed out because of ageism.
Work is meaningful, rewarding, remunerative, and it provides a positive identity.
Working seniors alleviate public expenditures and minimizes demands for entitlements like pensions, housing, healthcare.

Criticism = Capitalism has contributed to longevity and quality of life for seniors.

Question 13

Interactionism

Answer 13

socially constructed definitions of age affect one’s experience of growing old
people take on new roles as they age, and they reject the definition of old age as inadequate, incapable, unhealthy

Activity Theory = Older people who are active are happier and better adjusted.

Criticism = Older people may not wish or be able to maintain active lifestyles.

Question 14

Feminism

Answer 14

Women are more likely than men to suffer the hardships associated with ageing
Women are more vulnerable to loss of income from the cumulative effects of underpaid and unpaid work
Women often do caregiving work; they generally provide care in ageing while men receive it

Question 15

Social Gerontology

Answer 15

The study of the social (non physical) aspects of aging.

Question 16

Characteristics of Later Maturity

Answer 16

Many people find themselves caring for people their own age
Considered to begin in 60s although people continue to work into the 70s, most people have left the work force by 70.
Chances of heart attack stroke and cancer increase

Question 17

Alzheimer’s Disease

Answer 17

A degenerative disease that attacks the brain and severely impairs memory and thinking and behaviour (747,000 people suffer)
Centenarians (those 100+ years old has grown) is an indication 5825 in 2011 to 63700 in 2056
In 2011 those over 65 were 5,186,800, up 11% from 1992.

Question 18

Problems Linked to being Elderly: Ageism

50% of Canadians ageism is the most tolerated social injustice

Answer 18

Prejudice and discrimination against people on the basis of age.
Robert Butler (1969) coined the term to describe how myths and misconceptions about older people produce age based discrimination. It is a form of stereotyping.
6 in 10 seniors say that they have been treated unfairly
1/3 of Canadians admit to have treated an older person unfairly

Question 19

Social problem: Ageism

Answer 19

7 in 10 of Canadian society values younger people more
1 in 5 say Older people are a burden to society
1 in three quarters of Canadians agree that seniors 75 years ad older are seen as less important and are more often ignored than younger generations.

Question 20

Workplace Discrimination: Elderly People

Answer 20

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms free from discrimination based on many characteristics including age, but many subtle forms of discrimination remain.
Downgraded job descriptions, failed to promote them or grant them raises, or are trying to push them out of jobs so that cheaper workers can be hired.

Question 21

Older Employees

Answer 21

Total workers both male and female 55+ years has increase since 197 form 12% to almost 18%

Question 22

Retirement: Income Security and Leaisure Activities

Answer 22

Retirement Principle: the idea that at a fixed age regardless of mental of physical ability a person leaves work
It simply implies that everyone experienced a decline in physical and mental ability at a specific age.
Severe decline in pensions and investments that occurred in 2008 may have resulted in more people continuing to work.

Question 23

Advantages to continuing to Work:

Incomes at 70 were 80% of their working wages.

Answer 23

Reduction in early dementia
French governments research agency showed that those that retired early had a lower risk of dementia.
Orientation: most people are prepared with good health, friends and financial resources
Fewer people are far from being dependent in retirement

Question 24

Wealthy Canadian Workers Experienced a A greater decline in finances than low income Workers

Answer 24

The richest workers, top 20% income distribution at 55, received about 70% of income
Those in the lowest 20% saw no decline in their income because of various income transfers.

Question 25

A new retirement financial concern has been raised:

Answer 25

The percentage of the RRIF which must the RRSP must be converted to that must be withdrawn at age 71 and that % increases until 90 when 20% of the fund must be withdrawn.
Given how long people are living this leaves very little left in ones final years.

Question 26

Poverty and Seniors and subgroups of seniors experiencing problems are concerns:

Answer 26

The rate of government increases in pay outs has not been as high since the mid-1990s as it was before that time
Seniors living alone are the ones doing the least well, especially women
15% of those icing alone fell below the LICO and slightly more women were in this position than men.

Question 27

Myths regarding elderly

Answer 27

Being at a loss of what to do with one’s time
They actually participate in many hours of active and passive leisure time on a daily basis.
Cognitive leisure, social leisure and physical leisure are combined to form passive leisure
Passive leisure and active leisure both increase for men and women at 65

Question 28

Health, Illness, and Health Care

Answer 28

Studies show that people are not developing the disabling diseases that were common in the past, and the vast majority function quite well
Attributed to better education, nutrition, and public health
This positive outlook is not true for Indigenous people

Question 29

Old age: indigenous people

Answer 29

Those reporting a higher level of health is slightly higher for those with education higher than high school
Further intensified by the feminization of aging.
Because women are greater like hood of being poor and having no spouse to care for them
Predicting skyrocketing costs is highly overstated.

Question 30

Changing Costs of Health Care: Aging

Answer 30

Rambo and Berlin - show that only 14% of the change in the health care costs was due to aging. 1976-2009

Question 31

Older victimization

Answer 31

Senior victims of violence were more likely to be victimized by an adult child or a current or former spouse.
Among men and women the rate of family violence was lower than for other ages
The rate of family violence among senior women was close to 10 times lower than the rate of women aged 25 to 34

Question 32

Elderly Victimization

Answer 32

Complications resulting for physical violence
Many analysts suggest that there is greater violence in families but less reported because they are dependent on them
Safe havens have now been created for seniors - study 10% reported it
Other abuses are: emotional (15) financial (5), sexual 92)and neglect(1).
Older people can become victims of financial scams

Question 33

Family Problems and Social Isolation

(SROs) in Vancouver and Toronto being replaced by high rises building and retail space
An increasing number of older people are becoming homeless

Answer 33

Younger people stop asking for advice, feel unduly burdened
5 million seniors lived in private households (56.4 in couples)
Intimacy at a distance - families usually provide support for their older members
Class- more money =wider array of activities
Others become homeless displaced from low income housing

Question 34

Housing Patterns and Long Term Care Facilities

Answer 34

Because of the high cost of utilities, insurance, taxes, and repair maintenance older women are more likely. To live alone and be disadvantaged
Toronto - 2009-2013-4.7% to 10 %
Older people with upper and middle incomes are more likely to live in facilities

Question 35

Multilevel Retirement residences or facilities

Answer 35

In recent years there has been a rise in religious organizations and for profit organizations that provide a range of services from independent living to skilled nursing care
It is important to distinguish between elderly residences and long term care facilities

Question 36

Costs of long term care

Answer 36

Western Industrialized Nations and Japan. Canada spends 1.23% of GDP on long term care and Sweden contributes a higher percentage to GDP on elderly and long term care because it is more collective oriented.
Home are is seen as a way to reduce health care costs - $2791/month

Question 37

Death and Dying

Answer 37

50% of deaths are due to heart disease

Researchers found that people don’t fear death as much as they do the fear of pain and suffering

Question 38

4 frameworks for explaining how people cope with process of dying:

Answer 38

The stage based approach, the trajectories of grief,the dying trajectory, the task based approach

Question 39

Stage based Approach

Answer 39

1) Denial 2)Anger (why me?)3)bargaining and asking for divine intervention (yes, me, but…)4)depression and sense of loss 5) acceptance

Question 40

Trajectories of Greif

Answer 40

Resilience - the ability to maintain a. Relatively stable, healthy level of psychological and physical functioning
2 recovery - gradual return to previous levels of functioning
Chronic dysfunction - inability to function after experience greif
4 Delayed Grief - appearing to have normal adjustment followed by an increase in distress

Question 41

Coping Ugly

Answer 41

Coined by Bonnano

Inappropriate behaviour like telling jokes that may help the person move on from loss

Question 42

Dying Trajectory

Answer 42

Focuses on the perceived course of dying and the expected time of death
In this Perspective not all people move toward death at the same speed or in the same way.
Acute phase: anxious, Chronic:anxiety declines, terminal:withdraws from others

Question 43

Task based Approach: suggests that daily activities can still be enjoyed during the dying process and that fulfilling certain tasks makes the process of death easier, not just on the dying person, but on everyone involved

Answer 43

Physical tasks: performed to satisfy bodily needs
Psychological Tasks: maximize security, autonomy, and richness of experience
Spiritual Tasks: performed to identify, develop or reaffirm sources of spiritual energy and to foster hope
Important are the rights of the dying person and the way that care is give

Question 44

Hospices

Answer 44

Organizations that provide a homelike facility or home based care for persons who are terminally ill

Question 45

Functionalist Perspective: Aging

Answer 45

Dramatic changes in institutions as the family and economy have influenced how. People look at the process of growing old
Stability of society focuses much less on people preparing for occupational roles than leaving them at an arbitrary time
65 likely no longer able to keep up with the demands

Question 46

Functionalist Perspective: Disengagement Theory

Answer 46

Suggest that people want to be released from societal expectations of productivity and competitiveness
Retirement policies then are a means of ensuring that younger people with more up tot date training move into occupational roles while ensuring older generations are recognized for their years of service

Question 47

Functionalist Perspective: Disengagement Theory Critisms

Answer 47

Fewer workers means strain on CPP, people should be allowed to work beyond 65

Question 48

Interactionist Perspective: Interactionist Activity Theory

Answer 48

Assumption that people who are active are happier and better adjusted than less active people.
By denying the existence of old age and maintaining middle age lifestyles for as long as possible.

Question 49

Interactionist Perspective: Interactionist Activity Theory Critism

Answer 49

Katz (2000) suggests that this emphasis on activity could be transformed into a means of controlling older people.

Question 50

Conflict Perspective:

In a capitalist system older people are set a part as a group that depends on special policies and programs

Answer 50

focus on the political economy of aging
Class constitutes a structural barrier to older people’s access to valued resources and dominant groups attempt to maintain their own interests by perpetuation class inequalities
Problem rooted in societal conditions- income and housing
People who are poor in their younger year are more so in older

Question 51

Critisms of Conflict Perspective

Answer 51

Approach ignores the fact that industrialization and capitalism have been positive forces in society, greatly enhancing the longevity and quality of life for many older people.

Question 52

Feminist Perspective

Answer 52

emphasize inequalities between men and women
Women have higher rates of disability and lower incomes
11.5% of unattached men had low incomes, compared to 15% of women

Question 53

Solutions to Age Based Inequality

Answer 53

Employment, family responsibilities must become less compartmentalized - technology helps make this happen
People who have had no opportunity to engage in leisure activities earlier in life are not likely to engage in them later.
Life expectancy - technology has assisted in early diagnosis
Computers make it easier for people to stay at home for shopping

Question 54

solutions to Aged Based Inequality (2)

Answer 54

a technology also brings education and recreation into the home
Economic corners loom as boomers retire bringing a dramatic shift in elder dependency ratio- the number of workers necessary to support those over age 64

Question 55

Productive Aging: solution to Age Based Inequality

Answer 55

Instead of pitting young against the old we should change our national policies and attitudes
Encourage older people to create their own roles in society not to disengage from it.

Question 56

Solutions to Age Based Inequality: Functionalist

Answer 56

Changes must occur in families and other social institutions if wer are to resolve problems brought about by family diversification and increased workplace demands.

Question 57

Sandwich Generation

Answer 57

Mostly women
3 in 10 people aged 35-44 years with unmarried children under 25 years income were also carrying for a senior
2.2 million people
Devote more house tan men do in caring for seniors
Report feeling stressed, more support would help them.

Question 58

Solutions to Age Based Inequality: Conflict Perspective

Answer 58

Rooted in power differentials
Younger people have been told to start saving money for retirement, however they have education loans to repay
Structure of the political and economic power in society
CARP advocacy group about policies that would benefit many older people (eg. Scams and fraud)

Question 59

Solutions to Age Based Inequality/: Interactionist Perspective

Answer 59

Elizabeth Carson - people who maintain strong relationships with others remain actively involved throughout their lifetime, have reason to be optimistic about life when they reach old age.