Chapter 15: Population, Urbanization, and the Environment Flashcards
Demography
Defined = the study of the size, composition, and distribution of populations
Q. What is the social problem?
A. “The population growth imbalance between high-income and middle- and low-income nations is a potential source of global conflict, particularly if world hunger and environmental destruction increase.” (Kendall et al: 339)
Implications?
A population Explosion
The global north blames the global south for over-population, but it is the global north that consumes the most in energy, makes the most waste, and makes the largest ecological footprint (by a very large margin).
In places where population rates are the fastest, the carbon emissions are the slowest. (Satterthwaite 2009, Environment and Urbanization, 21 (2): 545–567)
eg. 1980-2005, the pop rate in sub-Saharan Africa grew 18.5% while carbon emissions grew only 2.4%
the pop in North America grew 4% while carbon emissions grew 14%
“carrying capacity” (Rees 1996) = the “productive biocapacity of the earth”
If we were to share the Earth’s productive capacity fairly, there would be 1.8 GH (global hectares) each.
Africans = 1.37 GH; Indians = 0.89GH; Chinese = 2.11 GH; Europeans = 4.45 GH; British = 5.33 GH; North Americans = 9.42 GH; Australians = 9.8 GH
“carrying capacity” (Rees 1996) = the “productive biocapacity of the earth”
If we were to share the Earth’s productive capacity fairly, there would be 1.8 GH (global hectares) each.
Africans = 1.37 GH; Indians = 0.89GH; Chinese = 2.11 GH; Europeans = 4.45 GH; British = 5.33 GH; North Americans = 9.42 GH; Australians = 9.8 GH
World Migration
In 2015, there were 244 million international migrants — an increase of 71 million, or 41%, compared to 2000.
43% were born in Asia; 25% in Europe; 15% in Latin America and the Caribbean; 14% in Africa
Europe and Asia host 2/3 of all international migrants
In 2014, the total number of refugees in the world was estimated at 19.5 million.
Turkey is the largest refugee-hosting country worldwide (1.6 million), followed by Pakistan (1.5 million), Lebanon (1.2 million), and the Islamic Republic of Iran (1.0 million)
More than half (53%) of all refugees worldwide came from just three countries: the Syrian Arab Republic (3.9 million), Afghanistan (2.6 million), and Somalia (1.1 million).
Urbanization
80% of Cdn pop lives in cities
increased responsibilities + decreased resources for cities due to downloading from provincial to municipal jurisdiction
air pollution, affordable housing, concentrations of poverty, homelessness
Trends = movement from suburbs to urban centres; hyperdensity in Toronto; “edge cities” megalopolis (K, 318)
Functionalism
population problems = social disorganization, instability due to weakened social institutions, eg. family, religion, education;
immigrant groups don’t always integrate fully crime, etc.
suburban/urban disparities (but they are less marked in Canada)
Conflict Theory
it is the rich who move out of cities urban deterioration
business moves to suburbs where land is cheaper and workers more plentiful capital investment and infrastructure follow
but Canadian municipalities play a more active role in urban land use management (K, 325)
Interactionism
experience of city life = excitement AND alienation
theories both romanticize the city and vilify the city
Feminism
urban space for women = opportunity, freedom, convenience, independence, sophistication
safety AND perceived as unsafe
Leslie Kern (2010). Sex and the Revitalized City: Gender, Condominium Development, and Urban Citizenship. UBC Press.
gendered imagery in urban revitalization in Toronto
commodification of women’s bodies, sexuality, pleasure, consumption appeal of the revitalized city as a place of freedom…
…despite the circulation of gendered notions of fear and safety
conclusion = the promotion of revitalization is not a feminist vision of women’s ability to participate in urban life
Environmental Problems
economic growth and environmental degradation
air pollution and smog
greenhouse effect and the depletion of the ozone layer
effects on water, soil, forest, desertification
solid, toxic/hazardous, and nuclear waste, technological disasters
Environmental problems are inextricably related to social inequalities at the global level.
IPCC 2014 Report
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
“Without urgent action to slash greenhouse gas emissions, warming by the end of the 21st century will lead to high to very high risk of severe, widespread, and irreversible impacts globally.”
It is “extremely likely” that human influence, primarily the burning of fossil fuels, has been the dominant cause of global warming over the past several decades.
The global average temperature should not be allowed to rise more than 2°C (3.6°F) above pre-industrial levels. To keep warming below 2°C, the world will have to cut greenhouse gas emissions between 40-70% by 2050—and then keep cutting until they are essentially zero by 2100.
Solutions To Environmental Problems
1) Sustainable development
2) Limit to growth
3) Resistance through social movements
4) Change consumer behaviour
5) Emphasize international cooperation
Environmental Sustainability
Sustainable development = development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
Economic growth needn’t be absolutely constrained, just controlled
governments, individuals, business all contribute to solutions “reduce, re-use, recycle”
Limit To Growth Perspective
biosphere = The total, complex network of living organisms and their physical surroundings operate as an interdependent system necessary for life at a world system level.
There are necessary limits to the capacity of the biosphere to provide renewable resources for human use and to the kind and volume of wastes that can absorb without impairing its capacity to reproduce renewable resources and handle new waste. (Clow and Felt, 2000)
Limit To Growth Perspective
“Sustainable Development” is inadequate because it assumes that:
we can indefinitely expand the use of materials from the biosphere;
we can produce more durable products for reuse and recycle;
we can dispose of wastes in the biosphere without its further destruction;
we can implement all necessary innovations to achieve it, eg. technological, political, financial, natural.
“Ultimately, ecological constraints will indeed limit the scale of economic activity and the constitution of productive forces, in spite of our best efforts to innovate. The underlying assumption that material progress can be a permanent feature of human society is manifestly in error.” (Clow & Felt 2000: 318)
‘Limit To Growth’ – Solutions
Not ‘reduce–reuse–recycle’ but:
Reduce the scale of economic activity to a scale that can be supported by the environment.
Refrain from economic activities whose technological basis cannot be safely tolerated and supported by the biosphere.
Restore the earth’s habitats and physical cycles in order to strengthen the biosphere’s damaged productive capacity.
Functionalism
problems are caused by dysfunctions in technology
we need better technology to offset dysfunctions
solutions are found within the state, business, institutions, eg. green options in commercial development; hybrid cars, wind power, solar power; natural resource management
Conflict Theory
problems are caused by abuse of power, capitalism, and inequality
“externalities” of production = costs of environmental problems are passed on to the public through taxes
industry is subsidized by the public this way
environmental classism, racism = dumps, hazardous sites, heavy industry, processing plants are often located in low-income areas
Feminism
The specific role of women is often lost in campaigns
gender-specific initiatives are crucial for policies on population growth, local economies, support for families, support for NGOs, and govt programs
ecofeminism movement leaders in activism vs environmental degradation
Interactionism
how are environmental problems interpreted, contested, supported, fought?
what helps and hinders the communication of information about environmental problems?
helps = newsworthiness, celebrity reps, incentive, support by high profile NGO change
net migration
the total number of migrants - the emigrants (people leaving the country) each year
Malthusian Perspective
Rapid population growth and overpopulation are not new problems
if left unchecked would exceed the available food supply
Shrinking countries
in the next 50 years - Rome, Russia, and Spain
Migration
2011 - 248, 747
2012 - refugees - 14,500
it is impossible to know how many stay in Canada because many enter Canada to gain access to the US
Population Cosmopolitan
biological and social characteristics of a population including such attributes as age, sex, radicalization, marital status, education, occupation, income and size of household
ex. age of pop is associated with demand for community resources
0-14 - 16%
65+-15%
NeoMalthusian Perspective
The population bomb
the dying planet with too many people on it
the solution is having fewer children
Demographic transition theory
societies move high birth and death rates to relatively low birth rates as a result of technology
Pre indsustril - high birth rates offset by high death - little population growth
Industrial stage - population growth - high birth low death because of tech
advanced industrialization - controlled fertility
Post industrial - pop grows slowly people control fertility
Hunger
16 million people in high income countries are malnourished
852 million people in low income countries are malnourished
Green Revolution
1970s increased global food supply
1980-1990s the food supply slowed considerably
1) fertilizers, irrigation and pesticides are costly for middle and low income nations
2)adopt western methods of farming
farmers would have to switch to a single crop
Bitechnological Revolution
some believe the it can close the gap between worldwide food supply and rapid population growth
encompasses any technique for improvong plants, animals or using micro organisms in innovative ways.
Zero Population Growth: Canada
1) high proportion of women enter the labour force
2) birth control
3) trend toward alter marriage
4) cost of raising a child is increasing
5) education on how to control fertility
Urban changes
every in the suburbs are moving to the city centre
Availability of inexpensive land and low cost mass construction grew suburbia
2010s this pattern has shifted - empty nesters and young people wanting to live in the city centre
some argue that cities reduce environmental degradation and end urban sprawl
Housing Shortages
more than one third of the outdoor homes population identified as Indigenous
HOT project - investing $484 million annually with high housing costs or inadequate accommodations
Functionalist Perspective
Three processes that contribute to social disorganization
mass migration from rural to urban areas
mechanical solidarity - social bonds based on shared religious beliefs and a simple division of labour
Organic solidarity - social bonds based on interdependence and an elaborate division of labour
high rates of people living together crime, mental health, and suicide grew more pronounced
Conflict Perspective
the upper classes have maintain class based and radicalized segregation through political control and legal strategies political economy model - economic and political factors affect patterns of urban growth and decline members of the upper class chose sites for shopping centres and factories
Conflict Perspective: Uneven Development
the tendency of some neighbourhoods, cities or regions to grow and prosper while others stagnate and decline
uneven development reflects inequalities in society
uneven development does not occur in Canada in the same way that it does in the US
Interactionist Perspective
unmarried people live in city because they want to be close to people
ethnic people live in separate neighbourhoods because they want to be
deprived and trapped live in the city because they believe that they have no there alternatives
Louis Wirth - suggested that urbanism increases the incidences of both social and personality disorders in people
results in an elaborate spacial segregation of people by racial/ethnicity, social class, religion or lifestyle.
some characterize the poor as dangerous
Feminist Perspectives
emphasize the educational opportunities, freedom, convenience and stimulation
oppressiveness of the suburbs
women do not have to worry about their behaviour
women that live in the city rather than the suburbs have the dual role
threats to women at night in cities
Economic Growth and Environmental Degradation
air pollution
the green house effect - excessive quantities of carbon monoxide - depletion of ozone layer
problems with water soil and forests
Functionalist Perspective : Environment
neomalthusian
over population lie in the education the government, and business
Conflict Perspective: Environment
corporations and the government are two main power institutions in society
disporportionate number of hazardous facilities are present in areas with large number of poor people
Interactionist Perspective: Environmental
social construct approach - claims makers gain public attention and support - with institutional support eg. Kyoto Protocol
green peace labelling of the oil sands
Feminist Perspectives: Environmental
ecofeminism - believe that women are more nurturing, cooperative, and conservation minded than men
Mother Nature to support the idea that women are closer to nature
1993 protest of the clear cutting of rainforests - organized by women and ranks as the second largest example of civil disobedience in Canada
