Chapter 5 Flashcards
In the broadest sense of the word, _______ is any error in reasoning.
Fallacy
Fallacy is
fallacy is any error in reasoning.
Fallacies differ along which two dimensions?
They involve an error in reason and they have the capacity to deceive us
A cardinal virtue in reasoning is
Objectivity
Objectivity in thinking and reasoning shows your commitment to…
Thinking in accordance with the facts and interpreting them logically
The first violation of objectivity is
Subjectivity
The fallacy of _______ism is committed whenever we hold that something is true simply believe we “want” or “believe” them to be true. In a sense willing them to be valid
Subjectivism
The fallacy of Subjectivism is committed whenever we …
whenever we hold that something is true simply believe we “want” or “believe” them to be true. In a sense willing them to be valid
True or false: The fallacy of objectivism is committed whenever we hold that something is true simply believe we “want” or “believe” that it is true. In a sense we are thus willing them to be valid.
False
In subjectivism: I want/believe (p) to be true therefore ➡️ (p) is ____
(P) is True
______ is not only a way of adopting conclusions on _____ grounds but also a way of evading them or ignoring what they don’t know to see
Subjectivism
subjective grounds
Subjectivism is not only a way of ______ conclusions on subjective grounds but also a way of ______ them or ignoring what they don’t know to see
adopting
evading
In Gone with the Wind, Scarlett says she will “think about that tomorrow” in hope that by ignoring them they will cease to exist. This is an example of
subjectivism or evading subjectivism
I don’t want to accept (p) therefore ➡️ (p) isn’t true
This is a form of _____?
Subjectivism
A response of “well was brought up to believe in (x)” and does not explain why one ought to believe it too. If we dismiss a counter argument that it is easier not to reevaluate our own convictions then this is a ______ fallacy
Subjective
Which fallacy is committed by the following argument?
Natalie is a pillar of our community, and pillars are made of stone or wood. So Natalie must be made of stone or wood.
Select one:
a. hasty generalization
b. ad hominem
c. equivocation
d. post hoc
e. appeal to majority
C. equivocation
Which subjectivist fallacy is committed in the following argument?
Lois: If there’s no food in Quahog, what makes you think there’s going to be food anywhere else?
Peter: Lois, everyone knows that there are two things that can survive a nuclear holocaust: cockroaches and Twinkies. . . . (Family Guy, “Da Boom”)
Select one:
a. appeal to force
b. appeal to emotion
c. subjectivism
d. none
e. appeal to majority
e. appeal to majority
The fallacy of subjectivism is:
Select one:
a. assuming that an argument is about yourself, rather than someone else
b. talking about too many things in an argument instead of focusing on one subject
c. holding that something is true merely because we want or believe it to be true
d. assuming that everyone will agree with an argument, even though it is controversial
e. focusing an argument on a point that is unrelated to the one you’re trying to prove
c. holding that something is true merely because we want or believe it to be true
Which of the following arguments commits the fallacy of subjectivism?
Select one:
a. Since I want a video game for Christmas, I should tell my parents.
b. Since I want there to be life on other planets, there is life on other planets.
c. Since I want to make sushi tonight, I will need to buy some rice.
d. Since I want to make more money, I should look for a better job.
e. Since I want to rest tomorrow, I must finish my project today.
b. Since I want there to be life on other planets, there is life on other planets
Which fallacy is committed by the following argument?
We should all tell the truth all of the time, since no one should ever lie at any time.
Select one:
a. equivocation
b. begging the question
c. slippery slope
d. accident
e. appeal to emotion
b. begging the question
Which fallacy is committed by the following argument?
If we allow you to practice on our piano, then we will have to let everyone else practice on our piano and won’t have time to manage our other responsibilities. So we can’t let you practice on it.
Select one:
a. subjectivism
b. slippery slope
c. ad hominem
d. composition
e. post hoc
b. slippery slope
Which fallacy is committed by the following argument?
It isn’t clear from our focus group whether or not this bill will be popular with the people. Thus for the time being, we can assume that it will.
Select one:
a. appeal to ignorance
b. diversion
c. accident
d. ad hominem
e. appeal to emotion
a. appeal to ignorance
A straw man argument is a form of diversion in which someone:
Select one:
a. changes the subject in such a way as to support two opposing positions at the same time
b. attempts to distract an opponent with pointing and other gestures in order to avoid responding to what the opponent is saying
c. changes the subject in such an obvious way that it appears that he or she has no brain (like the scarecrow in The Wizard of Oz)
d. distorts an opponent’s position and then refutes the distorted position instead of the real one
e. distorts an opponent’s position and then argues for it instead of against it
d. distorts an opponent’s position and then refutes the distorted position instead of the real one
The ad hominem fallacy occurs when:
Select one:
a. someone attacks the person making an argument instead of the argument itself
b. someone makes an argument that will only appeal to men, and not to women
c. someone says the same thing over and over without making any new points
d. an argument confuses two different words that are spelled the same way
e. someone assumes that others from his or her culture will agree with his or her position
a. someone attacks the person making an argument instead of the argument itself
True or false? An argument that begins with “I believe” commits the fallacy of subjectivism.
Select one:
a. It depends on whether an objective reason is given for the truth of the conclusion.
b. False unless the argument is about something controversial.
c. False in every case.
d. True in every case.
e. It depends on whether the premise that follows “I believe” is true or false.
a. It depends on whether an objective reason is given for the truth of the conclusion
The following is an example of what type of fallacy: That may be true for you, but it isn1t true for me.
Subjective
A fallacy that is essentially like a subjective fallacy is one that _____ to the majority. The subjective state of large numbers of people is being used as evidence for the truth of a proposition is still subjective and thus still fallacious.
Appeal to the majority
The following is an example of what type of fallacy: The majority (of people, nations , etc.) believe p ———> p is true
Appeal to the majority
At various times, majorities have believed that the earth is
flat, that bathing is unsanitary, and that certain women should be burned as witches. The fallacy of _______ is committed whenever someone takes a proposition
to be true merely because large numbers of people believe it.
Appeal to majority
Appeal to majority
Whenever someone takes a proposition to be true merely because large numbers of people believe it.
Appeal to emotion
the hope that people will adopt a belief on the basis of a feeling that has been instilled in them: outrage, hostility ,
fear, pity, guilt, etc.
True or False: Rhetoric and other emotive devices are not fallacious per se. If you have a logical argument to back up a conclusion, there is nothing wrong with stat ing it in such a way that your audience will endorse it with their feelings as well as their intellects. Good writers and speakers combine logic and rhetor ic to produce exactly that effect.
True
When rhetoric replaces logic, only when the intent is to make an audience act on emotion instead of rational judgment is when a _____ type of fallacy occurs
Appeal to emotion
Argumentum ad Baculum is the same as
argument to the (in Latin, argumentum) a club (in Latin, baculum)
Argument to the club
Appeal to Force
If I persuade you of something by means of threats than I have simply scared you into thinking it is true. This is an appeal to ____
appeal to force
When a government engages in censorship, for example, it uses ____ to prohibit the expression of certain ideas and to compel agreement with other ideas. The point of this control over verbal expression is to influence what people believe. But the fallacy need not involve actual _____ or _____.
force
physical force or violence
Appeal of force is committed whenever any sort of threat is used, and nonphysical threats are probably more common than physical ones.
_____ is committed whenever any sort of threat is used, and nonphysical threats are probably more common than physical ones.
Appeal of force
Subjectivist Fallacies
1) Subjectivism is…
using the fact that one believes or wants a proposition to be true as evidence of its truth.
Subjectivist Fallacies
2) Appeal to the majority is…
using the fact that large numbers of people believe a proposition to be true as evidence of its truth.
Subjectivist Fallacies
3) Appeal to emotion (argumentum ad populum) is…
trying to get someone to accept a proposition on the basis of an emotion one elicits
Subjectivist Fallacies
4) Appeal to force (argumentum ad baculum) is…
trying to get someone to accept a proposition on the basis of a threat
What is a fallacy?
A fallacy is an error in reasoning. It is useful to study them to better understand the nature of good reasoning, and so that you can avoid them in your own reasoning and identify them when others use them.
There are _____ and ____ fallacies.
informal fallacies and formal fallacies
An ______ is someone whose word carries special weight. someone who can speak with _______ because of expertise in some area of knowledge.
Authority
authority
It is perfectly appropriate to rely on the testimony of authorities if the conditions of credibility are satisfied. If they are not satisfied, however, the appeal to authority
is______.
fallacious
The _______ is typically violated when someone speaks outside of their field of expertise. Because their opinions carries no more weight than that of any layman.
appeal of authority
Specialists disagree. But what should we do when we encounter such disagreements?
The first thing to do, of course, is to make sure that we are dealing with a genuine dispute among experts and not simply an effort by some non-expert to challenge well-established principles or theories. If the dispute is a genuine one, then we have to take both sides into account. An argument that appeals only to one group of experts is fallacious.
The second condition for credibility is that the alleged authority be ______. there are certain red flags that should at least raise a question about _____. Vested interests are an obvious example.
objective
objectivity
An _________ argument rejects or dismisses another person ‘s statement by attacking the person rather than the statement itself.
ad hominem argument
An __________ argument has the form:
X says p + X has some negative trait
————>
p is false
ad hominem
True or False: it is certainly legitimate for the opposing side to introduce evidence that the witness is dishonest or biased. But discrediting witnesses or authorities does not
provide evidence that what they say is actually false; it merely eliminates any reason for thinking that what they say is true.
True
In its crudest form ________ is calling one’s opponent an idiot , slob , lowlife , airhead , fascist , pinko, nerd , fairy, bleeding heart , wimp, Neanderthal , and so on through the rich vocabulary of abuse our language offers
ad hominem fallacy
Suppose that someone criticizes you for telling a white lie. If your critic is himself a notorious liar, you’d probably be tempted to say, “Look who ‘s talking! “ This response is certainly understandable - no one enjoys being censured by a moral inferior but it is fallacious. The fact that someone else is guilty of an accusation doesn’t prove that you are innocent. It may be unseemly for the pot to call the kettle black, but the kettle is black nonetheless. This is an example of
ad hominem known as the tu quoque (“you ‘re another “)
argument
Classic example of _______ fallacy is the patient who says to his doctor: “How can you tell me I should stop smoking when you still smoke yourself?” The fact that a doctor doesn’t take his own advice hardly means that it isn’t good advice; a hypocrite may still say something true
or make a valid argument.
ad hominem
argumentum ad verecun
Appeal to authority
using a negative trait of the speaker as evidence that his statement is false or his argument week
ad hominem
False Alternative
Suppose you tell me that Diane is not rich, and I infer that she is poor. I have obviously failed to take account of other alternatives. Rich and poor are the extremes on a scale that contains many intermediate degrees of wealth.
when we exclude relevant alternatives without justification
False Alternative
Another name for a false alternative fallacy is
false dichotomy
No matter how certain we are of our conclusions and our arguments, it is always worthwhile to stop and ask the following questions:
Is there anything I’ve overlooked?
Could there be some other explanation for these fact s?
Is there some other perspective one might take?
Both ____ and _____ arguments can commit informal fallacies, whereas only deductive arguments can commit formal fallacies. Informal fallacies often involve both logical
and psychological factors; therefore fallacious arguments can be wrong in more than one way. This also means that categorization of the individual fallacies into broader classes is difficult (Kelley provides some broad categories, such as ‘subjectivist fallacies’ and ‘fallacies involving
credibility’ but you don’t need to know those, just know the individual fallacies themselves).
deductive and inductive arguments
Post hoc comes from the Latin phrase
After this, therefore became of this
The post hoc fallacy is probably the source of many _______
Superstitions
This is the formula for which fallacy
A occurred before B
Therefore
A caused B
Post hoc fallacy
The following are examples of which fallacy
Water always flows downhill
Large breeds of dogs have shorter lifespans than smaller dogs
People in France are not very friendly to tourists
Generalization (or general proposition)
This fallacy, known as ______, can take many forms. A single bad experience while traveling can prejudice our view of an entire city or country. Most of us have stereotypes about ethnic groups, professions, or people from different regions of the country, based on our exposure to a few individuals, etc.
hasty generalization
“If you give him an inch, he’ll take a mile” is another way of saying this _____ type of fallacy
slippery slope
other ways to describe slippery slope fallacy would be:
domino effect the primrose path a ripple effect the camel's nose in the tent the thin edge of the wedge
