Chapter 12 Flashcards
Hasty generalization is …
a fallacy because a single instance doesn’t necessarily prove a general rule.
____ is a fallacy because a single instance doesn’t necessarily prove a general rule.
Hasty generalization is a fallacy because a single instance doesn’t necessarily prove a general rule.
When considering generalizations: If l say that all athletes are dumb, and you point out that the varsity quarterback is getting excellent grades, you have proved me wrong. However, a single positive instance…
does not prove that a generalization is true. Equally the fact that one athlete is a weak student doesn’t prove that all of them are.
the method of induction by _____ is appropriate to use when we are dealing with small classes—an author ‘s complete works , the members of a family, the clothes in your closet —where we know something about each member individually.
the method of induction by complete enumeration
A _____ is a deductive argument with two premises, in which the premises and the conclusion are categorical propositions.
categorical syllogism
A _____ (Greek: “conclusion, inference”) is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two or more propositions that are asserted or assumed to be true.
syllogism
What are the Three Rules for Generalizing?
- The sample should be sufficiently numerous and various.
- We should look for disconfirming as well as confirming instances of a generalization.
- We should consider whether a link between S and Pis plausible in light of other knowledge we possess.
The following is an example of what type of physiological reasoning:
When we are angry at someone, our minds tend to multiply examples of how that person has wronged or offended us and to forget the other times when the person was fair or kind.
confirmation bias, the tendency to look for and give weight to evidence supporting a conclusion while ignoring, downplaying, or failing to seek evidence against it.
—– is the tendency to look for and give weight to evidence supporting a conclusion while ignoring, downplaying, or failing to seek evidence against it.
confirmation bias
confirmation bias
the tendency to look for and give weight to evidence supporting a conclusion while ignoring, downplaying, or failing to seek evidence against it.
The following is an example of what type of physiological reasoning:
People tend to rely on sources of news - television or radio stations, Web sites, newspapers, etc.- that share their political orientation, rather than seeking news and ideas that challenge their views.
confirmation bias
A concept is an idea; a word is the linguistic vehicle we use to express the idea. And the class of things that a concept stands for are called the \_\_\_\_\_. The \_\_\_\_ of DOG, for example, are all the individual dogs in the world.
Referents
Generalizing is an effort to identify connections among traits. But the term connection is pretty vague. In most cases, we are talking about _____
causality
Causality
generalizing in order to identify connections or causalities amongst traits
______ may involve interactions among things: collisions between air masses produce rain, a lighted match will set paper on fire. Or it may be a connection between the properties of an object and the way it acts: Uncommunicative people don ‘t make friends easily, a car’s design affects its performance , a charged particle will
attract or repel other charged particles.
causality
Name two factors of causality?
Cause of an event or cause of a property
We study causal relationships by trying to identify the factors that are _____ and/or _____ for the Effect we want to explain.
necessary
and/or
sufficient
What’s wrong with post hoc fallacy?
that the assumption that a preceded E, therefore a must have caused E. The fact that a came first is certainly relevant, but all by itself it gives us no reason to think
that a was either necessary or sufficient for E.
The nineteenth-century philosopher John Stuart Mill formulated several methods for establishing evidence of a causal connection. They are known as the methods of 1.____, 2. ____, 3. ____, and 4._____
- agreement
- difference
- concomitant variations
- residues
If a detective is trying to solve a series of murders asks whether the victims had something in common. John Stuart Mill would have called this technique the method of ____.
agreement
If your car makes a funny noise when you accelerate, and you take your foot off the pedal to see whether the noise goes away, John Stuart Mill would have called this technique the method of ______.
difference
inductive argument
an argument that attempts to show that its conclusion is supported by the premises even though the conclusion amplifies - or it goes beyond - what the premises state.
_____ is an argument that attempts to show that its conclusion is supported by the premises even though the conclusion amplifies - or it goes beyond - what the premises state.
inductive argument
_______ an item that belongs to a given class and possesses the trait attributed to the class by a given generalization.
positive instance
positive instance
an item that belongs to a given class and possesses the trait attributed to the class by a given generalization.
____ an item that belongs to a given class and does not possess the trait attributed to the class by a given generalization.
negative instance
negative instance
an item that belongs to a given class and does not possess the trait attributed to the class by a given generalization.
method of agreement
a method of identifying a cause of an effect by isolating a factor common to a variety of cases in which the effect occurs.
______ a method of identifying a cause of an effect by isolating a factor common to a variety of cases in which the effect occurs.
method of agreement
method of difference
a method of identifying a cause of an effect by isolating a factor in whose presence the effect occurs and in whose absence the effect does not occur, all other factors remaining constant.
If an instance in which the phenomenon under investigation occurs, and an instance in which it does not occur, have every circumstance save one in common, that one occurring only in the former; the circumstance in which alone the two instances differ, is the effect, or cause, or a necessary part of the cause, of the phenomenon.
method of difference
a method of identifying a cause of an effect by isolating a factor in whose presence the effect occurs and in whose absence the effect does not occur, all other factors remaining constant.
method of difference
a method of identifying a cause of an effect by using the methods of agreement and difference in combination
joint method (agreement and difference)
method of concomitant variations
a method of identifying a cause of an effect by isolating a factor whose variations are correlated with variations in the effect, all other factors remaining constant.
a method of identifying a cause of an effect by isolating a factor whose variations are correlated with variations in the effect, all other factors remaining constant.
method of concomitant variations
method of residues
residues—a method of identifying a cause of an effect by isolating that portion of the effect not explained by known causal relationships.
____ a method of identifying a cause of an effect by isolating that portion of the effect not explained by known causal relationships.
method of residues
