Chapter 3

Question 1

Most cars have four wheels. The Empire State Building is over a thousand feet tall.

Each of these statements has a linguistic form as an English sentence. And each of the sentences has a meaning; it has a meaning. The meaning or thought is a ________

Answer 1

proposition

Question 2

When we engage in reasoning, the units of thought are _____

Answer 2

Propositions

Question 3

When we take a position on an issue, we are asserting that a certain _____ is true.

Answer 3

That a certain proposition is true

Question 4

predicate

Answer 4

The predicate is the part of a sentence (or clause) that tells us what the subject does or is.

Question 5

Propositions, and the sentences that express them, must have a _____ and a ______

Answer 5

subject and a predicate

Question 6

In the following propositions (expressed through sentences that are comprised of subjects and predicates in order to be complete) which are the subjects and predicates?

For example:
Most cars have four wheels.
The Empire State Building is over a thousand feet tall.

Answer 6

Most cars = subject
Have four wheels = predicate

The Empire State Building = subject
Is over a thousand feet tall = predicate

Question 7

Jack is a X. Jack is a Y. If x and y express the same concept then they assert the same proposition.

The following statements assert the same proposition, true or false? Jack is a lawyer (x). Jack is an attorney (y).

Answer 7

True. Lawyer and attorney are synonymous

Question 8

Jack is a X. Jack is a Y. If x and y express the same concept then they assert the same proposition.

The following statements assert the same proposition, true or false?
Jack is a Baptist. Jack is a Christian.

Answer 8

False. Christian is a more abstract concept. Baptist would be a genus of Christian. So they do not assert or express the same proposition.

Question 9

Sometimes when two words express the same concept they are usually considered synonyms, however we must also take into account the word’s ______?

For example:
Mary has form command of the subject matter
Mary has a thorough understanding of the subject matter.

Answer 9

Connotation

Top sentence expresses more power and the second is more generic and bland

Question 10

Two words that express the same concept are usually considered to be synonyms: “couch” and “sofa,” “car” and “automobile,” “own” and “possess,” and so on. But sometimes words that express the same concept have different __________. They convey different images or feelings; they elicit different associations in our minds; they express different attitudes.

Answer 10

connotations

Question 11

For each pair of sentences that follow, determine whether the sentence s express the same proposition:

1. You have a lovely view from your window.
2. You have a beautiful view from your window.

Answer 11

Same proposition

Question 12

For each pair of sentences that follow, determine whether the sentence s express the same proposition:

1. James is a journalist.
2. James works for a newspaper.

Answer 12

Different proposition

Question 13

For each pair of sentences that follow, determine whether the sentence s express the same proposition:

1. The elderly person ahead of me was doing about 25 miles per hour.
2. The geezer ahead of me was doing about 25 miles per hour.

Answer 13

Same proposition

Question 14

For each pair of sentences that follow, determine whether the sentence s express the same proposition:

1. The activist was zealous about her cause.
2. The activist was fanatical about her cause.

Answer 14

Same proposition

Question 15

For each pair of sentences that follow, determine whether the sentence s express the same proposition:

1. The enemy ‘s intelligence operative was terminated with extreme prejudice.
2. The enemy spy was deliberately killed.

Answer 15

Different proposition

Question 16

Strictly speaking, a _______ is a particular figure of speech in which one thing is equated to another in order to bring out some point of similarity, as in the example we discussed in the past chapter: “Life is a cabaret.”

Answer 16

Metaphor

Question 17

Metaphors are distinguished from other figures of speech

such as _____: “Life is like a box of chocolates”

Answer 17

Similes

Question 18

For example, when the poet Robert Burns said “My love is like a red , red rose,” he was making a comparison . He didn’t mean that he was dating a form of plant life. Presumably he meant his love was beautiful. Yet the two statements

1. My love is like a red, red rose
2. My love is beautiful

Determine whether the above sentences express the same proposition…

Answer 18

Do not express quite the same proposition.

Perhaps the Burns also means to say that his love is prickly and temperamental. You can see that it would be extremely hard to find a literal statement that asserts exactly the same proposition.

Question 19

“Grasp” is a physical ______ for the mental act of understanding, but it has been used so often that understanding is now considered one of the literal meanings of the word. In such a case, there is no need for interpretation at all.

Answer 19

Metaphor

Question 20

We often describe pains as “sharp,” people as “dense,” spicy food as “hot,” relationships as “stormy,” and so on. If you think about it, you can see that each of these terms is based on a ______ that is now incorporated into its literal meaning.

Answer 20

Metaphor

Question 21

For the metaphorical statement, formulate a LITERAL equivalent:

The article “glossed over” the controversy.

Answer 21

The article over-simplified the information about the controversy

Question 22

4. Samuel Morse, who invented the telegraph and made a fortune from it, was also a painter whose work is highly regarded and often exhibited.

The following are ______ propositions of the above sentence:
4a. Samuel Morse invented the telegraph .
4b. Samuel Morse made a fortune from the telegraph.
4c . Samuel Morse was a painter.
4d. Samuel Morse’s work is highly regarded.
4e. Samuel Morse’s work is often exhibited.

Answer 22

Constituent propositions

Question 23

The following statement expresses the component proposition, but does not assert it. True or False.

The reelection of the president depends on whether the economy will improve by November.

Answer 23

True

Question 24

True or False: Two different grammatical structures can be equivalent, just as two words can be synonymous.

Answer 24

True

Question 25

True or False: A sentence always asserts every

proposition that it expresses.

Answer 25

False: A sentence does not always assert every

proposition that it expresses.

Question 26

True or False: A single sentence cannot assert more than a single proposition.

Answer 26

False: A single sentence can assert more than a single proposition.

Question 27

Determine whether the italicized proposition in the sentence below is asserted or unasserted:

I don’t care whether it rains.

Answer 27

Unasserted

Question 28

Determine whether the italicized proposition in the sentence below is asserted or unasserted:

The photos were disqualified because the judges determined that they had been altered.

Answer 28

Asserted

Question 29

And, but, because, after, for…. Are ______, words used to make compound sentences.

Answer 29

Conjunctions

Question 30

Conjunctions are words that are used to make compound sentence, and are referred to as _____ in logic. These words always join two or more components.

Answer 30

Connectives

Question 31

In logic, the whole class of words used to make compound sentences are referred to as ______

Answer 31

Connectives; Connectives always join two or more components to make a compound proposition

Question 32

“because”, “since ,” “whenever ,” “therefore ,” and “so that” are connectives that assert a relationship of ________?

Answer 32

Dependence; they are connectives that assert a relationship of dependence

Question 33

“after ,” “before ,” “when ,” “while ,” and “where “ are connectives that assert a relationship of _____ or _____.

Answer 33

Time or place; they are connectives that assert a relationship of time or place.

Question 34

Connectives like “but ,” “although ,” and “even though”

assert a relationship of _________ or seeming ______.

Answer 34

Contrast or seeming opposition

Question 35

What is a unit of reasoning?

Answer 35

Propositions

Question 36

Propositions (and sentences) must have \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (e.g., snow), which refer to some thing or class of
things…and \_\_\_\_\_ (e.g., is white), which say what the subject is or does.

Answer 36

subjects

predicates

Question 37

Two _________ can have the same meaning, if they express the same concept, yet have different connotations: e.g., “firm command” v. “thorough understanding”.

Answer 37

propositions

Question 38

Words or phrases have _______ : convey different images or feelings, different associations in our minds, different attitudes.

Answer 38

connotation

Question 39

Words or phrases have connotation, which means they: …

Answer 39

Convey different images or feelings, different associations in our minds, different attitudes.

Question 40

The strict meaning of “metaphor” is: _____. For example, X is Y, where X and Y clearly aren’t exactly alike, but the comparison is useful or creative.

Answer 40

a figure of speech in which two things are equated to bring out a point of similarity

Question 41

In logic, metaphor is used more broadly…..

Answer 41

any NON-literal use of language (figurative speech)

Question 42

Some metaphors become so tied to their use that they become _____ metaphors. For example, spicy food is hot. Hot becomes intrinsically tied to the description of spicy food. Everyone knows what that means. There’s no more room for ambiguity.

Answer 42

Dead metaphors

Question 43

Grammar has an objective purpose:

Answer 43

to maintain clarity of thought and speech. If words are assembled randomly, they will have no meaning or ambiguous meaning.

Question 44

True or False: Two different grammatical sentences can be equivalent, just as two words can be synonymous. e.g.: “The soccer ball bounced around the goal” v. “Around the goal the soccer ball bounced”

Answer 44

True

Question 45

A single sentence can assert more than a single _______.

Answer 45

Proposition

Question 46

A sentence does not always _____ every proposition that it expresses.

e.g.: Whether the government allows two people to marry depends on whether the two individuals
are consenting adults that are not kin to each other.

Answer 46

assert

A sentence does not always assert every proposition that it expresses.

Question 47

_______ join two or more propositions, resulting in a compound sentence.

Answer 47

Connectives

Question 48

Connectives….

Answer 48

join two or more propositions, resulting in a compound sentence.

Question 49

There are two types of compound propositions:

Answer 49

1. Where the component propositions are both asserted
2. Where the component propositions are not
   asserted.

Question 50

p and q 
p but q 
p whereas q 
p because q 
p for q 
p after q 
p before q 
(etc.)

In the above types of compound propositions, both the p and the q are_______.

Answer 50

both the p and the q are

Asserted

Question 51

p if q
p unless p 
p depends on q 
p or q 
either p or q 
(etc.)

In the above types of compound propositions, these connectives combine component propositions in which __________

Answer 51

neither component (p, q) is asserted.

Question 52

Proposition

Answer 52

the meaning or content of a statement.

Question 53

a logical structure that creates a compound proposition from component propositions.

Answer 53

connectives

Question 54

Connective

Answer 54

a logical structure that creates a compound proposition from component propositions.

Question 55

Three Propositions and Sentence Structure (1):

Answer 55

1. Two different grammatical structures can be equivalent, just as two words can be synonymous.

Question 56

Three Propositions and Sentence Structure (2):

Answer 56

2. A single sentence can assert more than a single proposition.

Question 57

Three Propositions and Sentence Structure (3):

Answer 57

3. A sentence does not always assert every proposition that it expresses.

Question 58

To determine whether two sentences assert the same proposition:

1. Use techniques of classification and definition to identify the concepts the words express.
2. Ignore________________________
3. Find a literal interpretation of all metaphors.

Answer 58

differences in connotation.

Question 59

Asserted and Unasserted Propositions

A single sentence may express more than one proposition. To identify the component propositions:

1. Ask _________
2. Distinguish nonrestrictive clauses, which introduce a distinct proposition, from restrictive clauses, which do not.

Answer 59

what facts are being asserted, i.e., what claims would have to be true for the sentence as a whole to be true.

Question 60

Asserted and Unasserted Propositions

A component proposition may be either asserted or merely expressed. To determine whether a proposition is asserted, ask whether the speaker is committing himself to its truth. Remember that:

1. In sentences of the form p or q and if p then q, the component propositions p and q arenot asserted.
2. In sentences with a noun clause following a verb like “believes,” “says,” etc., __________

Answer 60

the proposition expressed by the clause is not asserted.

Question 61

Is “grass is green” a statement or a proposition?

Select one:

a. It is a proposition only.
b. It is impossible to tell without more information.
c. It is a statement only.
d. It is neither a statement nor a proposition.
e. The words make a statement, but the thought is a proposition.

Answer 61

e. The words make a statement, but the thought is a proposition.

Question 62

Which of the following propositions includes a connective?

Select one:

a. Death of a Salesman is a play written by Arthur Miller.
b. After the storm passed, the temperature dropped.
c. Flossing is an important part of maintaining dental hygiene.
d. Many medieval castles were surrounded by moats.
e. A prune is a dehydrated plum.

Answer 62

b. After the storm passed, the temperature dropped.

Question 63

Which proposition is equivalent to “The team worked together to paint the fence”?

Select one:

a. Each member of the team painted part of the fence.
b. Painting the fence required teamwork.
c. The team cooperated to paint the fence.
d. The fence worked together to be painted by the team.
e. The fence was painted by more than one person.

Answer 63

c. The team cooperated to paint the fence

Question 64

Which of the following sentences most clearly asserts more than one proposition?

Select one:

a. The rebels are waving a white flag.
b. The black ball in billiards is the eight ball.
c. The launch will be delayed.
d. Babe Ruth was a baseball player.
e. Saying the wrong thing on a first date is common.

Answer 64

a. The rebels are waving a white flag.

Question 65

Do metaphors appear in the subject or in the predicate of a proposition?

Select one:

a. Only in the predicate.
b. Either the subject or the predicate.
c. Neither. They appear in between the subject and the predicate.
d. Only in the subject.
e. Whichever one appears at the end of the sentence.

Answer 65

b. Either the subject or the predicate

Question 66

Which of the following sentences asserts that waiters depend on tips?

Select one:

a. If waiters depend on tips, then it is important to tip them.
b. Unless waiters depend on tips, leaving a $2 tip ought to be enough.
c. Oscar is very generous to waiters, who depend on tips.
d. Waiters who depend on tips have a lower minimum wage than other workers.
e. Either waiters depend on tips, or I have been misled.

Answer 66

c. Oscar is very generous to waiters, who depend on tips.

Question 67

Is it possible to connect two propositions with the connective “if” in such a way that both propositions are asserted?

Select one:

a. Yes, because with “if,” the proposition following the word “if” is always asserted.
b. Yes, because with “if,” one of the two propositions (but not both) is always asserted.
c. Yes, because with “if,” both propositions are always asserted.
d. No, because with “if,” neither proposition is ever asserted.
e. No, because with “if,” the proposition following the word “if” is always unasserted.

Answer 67

d. No, because with “if,” neither proposition is ever asserted.

Question 68

What is the predicate of the following proposition?
The adorable little baby was playing on the wooden floor.

Select one:

a. adorable
b. wooden floor
c. the adorable little baby
d. baby was playing
e. was playing on the wooden floor

Answer 68

e. was playing on the wooden floor

Question 69

Can two propositions be equivalent if their subjects do not consist of the same words?

Select one:

a. Yes, because their subjects could have identical meanings.
b. Yes, but only if the predicates are also worded differently from each other.
c. Yes, but only if the predicates are worded identically.
d. No, because the subjects must be identical.
e. No, because they wouldn’t be about the same topic.

Answer 69

a. Yes, because their subjects could have identical meanings.

Question 70

In a proposition, the subject is always:

Select one:

a. a term that refers to something or a class of things
b. the last word of the proposition
c. a term that tells us what something is doing
d. the meaning of the proposition, taken as a whole
e. the first word of the proposition

Answer 70

a. a term that refers to something or a class of things