Chapter 3 Flashcards
Most cars have four wheels. The Empire State Building is over a thousand feet tall.
Each of these statements has a linguistic form as an English sentence. And each of the sentences has a meaning; it has a meaning. The meaning or thought is a ________
proposition
When we engage in reasoning, the units of thought are _____
Propositions
When we take a position on an issue, we are asserting that a certain _____ is true.
That a certain proposition is true
predicate
The predicate is the part of a sentence (or clause) that tells us what the subject does or is.
Propositions, and the sentences that express them, must have a _____ and a ______
subject and a predicate
In the following propositions (expressed through sentences that are comprised of subjects and predicates in order to be complete) which are the subjects and predicates?
For example:
Most cars have four wheels.
The Empire State Building is over a thousand feet tall.
Most cars = subject
Have four wheels = predicate
The Empire State Building = subject
Is over a thousand feet tall = predicate
Jack is a X. Jack is a Y. If x and y express the same concept then they assert the same proposition.
The following statements assert the same proposition, true or false? Jack is a lawyer (x). Jack is an attorney (y).
True. Lawyer and attorney are synonymous
Jack is a X. Jack is a Y. If x and y express the same concept then they assert the same proposition.
The following statements assert the same proposition, true or false?
Jack is a Baptist. Jack is a Christian.
False. Christian is a more abstract concept. Baptist would be a genus of Christian. So they do not assert or express the same proposition.
Sometimes when two words express the same concept they are usually considered synonyms, however we must also take into account the word’s ______?
For example:
Mary has form command of the subject matter
Mary has a thorough understanding of the subject matter.
Connotation
Top sentence expresses more power and the second is more generic and bland
Two words that express the same concept are usually considered to be synonyms: “couch” and “sofa,” “car” and “automobile,” “own” and “possess,” and so on. But sometimes words that express the same concept have different __________. They convey different images or feelings; they elicit different associations in our minds; they express different attitudes.
connotations
For each pair of sentences that follow, determine whether the sentence s express the same proposition:
- You have a lovely view from your window.
- You have a beautiful view from your window.
Same proposition
For each pair of sentences that follow, determine whether the sentence s express the same proposition:
- James is a journalist.
- James works for a newspaper.
Different proposition
For each pair of sentences that follow, determine whether the sentence s express the same proposition:
- The elderly person ahead of me was doing about 25 miles per hour.
- The geezer ahead of me was doing about 25 miles per hour.
Same proposition
For each pair of sentences that follow, determine whether the sentence s express the same proposition:
- The activist was zealous about her cause.
- The activist was fanatical about her cause.
Same proposition
For each pair of sentences that follow, determine whether the sentence s express the same proposition:
- The enemy ‘s intelligence operative was terminated with extreme prejudice.
- The enemy spy was deliberately killed.
Different proposition
Strictly speaking, a _______ is a particular figure of speech in which one thing is equated to another in order to bring out some point of similarity, as in the example we discussed in the past chapter: “Life is a cabaret.”
Metaphor
Metaphors are distinguished from other figures of speech
such as _____: “Life is like a box of chocolates”
Similes
For example, when the poet Robert Burns said “My love is like a red , red rose,” he was making a comparison . He didn’t mean that he was dating a form of plant life. Presumably he meant his love was beautiful. Yet the two statements
- My love is like a red, red rose
- My love is beautiful
Determine whether the above sentences express the same proposition…
Do not express quite the same proposition.
Perhaps the Burns also means to say that his love is prickly and temperamental. You can see that it would be extremely hard to find a literal statement that asserts exactly the same proposition.
“Grasp” is a physical ______ for the mental act of understanding, but it has been used so often that understanding is now considered one of the literal meanings of the word. In such a case, there is no need for interpretation at all.
Metaphor
We often describe pains as “sharp,” people as “dense,” spicy food as “hot,” relationships as “stormy,” and so on. If you think about it, you can see that each of these terms is based on a ______ that is now incorporated into its literal meaning.
Metaphor
For the metaphorical statement, formulate a LITERAL equivalent:
The article “glossed over” the controversy.
The article over-simplified the information about the controversy
- Samuel Morse, who invented the telegraph and made a fortune from it, was also a painter whose work is highly regarded and often exhibited.
The following are ______ propositions of the above sentence:
4a. Samuel Morse invented the telegraph .
4b. Samuel Morse made a fortune from the telegraph.
4c . Samuel Morse was a painter.
4d. Samuel Morse’s work is highly regarded.
4e. Samuel Morse’s work is often exhibited.
Constituent propositions
The following statement expresses the component proposition, but does not assert it. True or False.
The reelection of the president depends on whether the economy will improve by November.
True
True or False: Two different grammatical structures can be equivalent, just as two words can be synonymous.
True
True or False: A sentence always asserts every
proposition that it expresses.
False: A sentence does not always assert every
proposition that it expresses.
True or False: A single sentence cannot assert more than a single proposition.
False: A single sentence can assert more than a single proposition.
Determine whether the italicized proposition in the sentence below is asserted or unasserted:
I don’t care whether it rains.
Unasserted
Determine whether the italicized proposition in the sentence below is asserted or unasserted:
The photos were disqualified because the judges determined that they had been altered.
Asserted
And, but, because, after, for…. Are ______, words used to make compound sentences.
Conjunctions
Conjunctions are words that are used to make compound sentence, and are referred to as _____ in logic. These words always join two or more components.
Connectives
In logic, the whole class of words used to make compound sentences are referred to as ______
Connectives; Connectives always join two or more components to make a compound proposition
“because”, “since ,” “whenever ,” “therefore ,” and “so that” are connectives that assert a relationship of ________?
Dependence; they are connectives that assert a relationship of dependence
“after ,” “before ,” “when ,” “while ,” and “where “ are connectives that assert a relationship of _____ or _____.
Time or place; they are connectives that assert a relationship of time or place.
Connectives like “but ,” “although ,” and “even though”
assert a relationship of _________ or seeming ______.
Contrast or seeming opposition
What is a unit of reasoning?
Propositions
Propositions (and sentences) must have \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (e.g., snow), which refer to some thing or class of things…and \_\_\_\_\_ (e.g., is white), which say what the subject is or does.
subjects
predicates
Two _________ can have the same meaning, if they express the same concept, yet have different connotations: e.g., “firm command” v. “thorough understanding”.
propositions
Words or phrases have _______ : convey different images or feelings, different associations in our minds, different attitudes.
connotation
Words or phrases have connotation, which means they: …
Convey different images or feelings, different associations in our minds, different attitudes.
The strict meaning of “metaphor” is: _____. For example, X is Y, where X and Y clearly aren’t exactly alike, but the comparison is useful or creative.
a figure of speech in which two things are equated to bring out a point of similarity
In logic, metaphor is used more broadly…..
any NON-literal use of language (figurative speech)
Some metaphors become so tied to their use that they become _____ metaphors. For example, spicy food is hot. Hot becomes intrinsically tied to the description of spicy food. Everyone knows what that means. There’s no more room for ambiguity.
Dead metaphors
Grammar has an objective purpose:
to maintain clarity of thought and speech. If words are assembled randomly, they will have no meaning or ambiguous meaning.
True or False: Two different grammatical sentences can be equivalent, just as two words can be synonymous. e.g.: “The soccer ball bounced around the goal” v. “Around the goal the soccer ball bounced”
True
A single sentence can assert more than a single _______.
Proposition
A sentence does not always _____ every proposition that it expresses.
e.g.: Whether the government allows two people to marry depends on whether the two individuals
are consenting adults that are not kin to each other.
assert
A sentence does not always assert every proposition that it expresses.
_______ join two or more propositions, resulting in a compound sentence.
Connectives
Connectives….
join two or more propositions, resulting in a compound sentence.
There are two types of compound propositions:
- Where the component propositions are both asserted
- Where the component propositions are not
asserted.
p and q p but q p whereas q p because q p for q p after q p before q (etc.)
In the above types of compound propositions, both the p and the q are_______.
both the p and the q are
Asserted
p if q p unless p p depends on q p or q either p or q (etc.)
In the above types of compound propositions, these connectives combine component propositions in which __________
neither component (p, q) is asserted.
Proposition
the meaning or content of a statement.
a logical structure that creates a compound proposition from component propositions.
connectives
Connective
a logical structure that creates a compound proposition from component propositions.
Three Propositions and Sentence Structure (1):
- Two different grammatical structures can be equivalent, just as two words can be synonymous.
Three Propositions and Sentence Structure (2):
- A single sentence can assert more than a single proposition.
Three Propositions and Sentence Structure (3):
- A sentence does not always assert every proposition that it expresses.
To determine whether two sentences assert the same proposition:
- Use techniques of classification and definition to identify the concepts the words express.
- Ignore________________________
- Find a literal interpretation of all metaphors.
differences in connotation.
Asserted and Unasserted Propositions
A single sentence may express more than one proposition. To identify the component propositions:
- Ask _________
- Distinguish nonrestrictive clauses, which introduce a distinct proposition, from restrictive clauses, which do not.
what facts are being asserted, i.e., what claims would have to be true for the sentence as a whole to be true.
Asserted and Unasserted Propositions
A component proposition may be either asserted or merely expressed. To determine whether a proposition is asserted, ask whether the speaker is committing himself to its truth. Remember that:
- In sentences of the form p or q and if p then q, the component propositions p and q arenot asserted.
- In sentences with a noun clause following a verb like “believes,” “says,” etc., __________
the proposition expressed by the clause is not asserted.
Is “grass is green” a statement or a proposition?
Select one:
a. It is a proposition only.
b. It is impossible to tell without more information.
c. It is a statement only.
d. It is neither a statement nor a proposition.
e. The words make a statement, but the thought is a proposition.
e. The words make a statement, but the thought is a proposition.
Which of the following propositions includes a connective?
Select one:
a. Death of a Salesman is a play written by Arthur Miller.
b. After the storm passed, the temperature dropped.
c. Flossing is an important part of maintaining dental hygiene.
d. Many medieval castles were surrounded by moats.
e. A prune is a dehydrated plum.
b. After the storm passed, the temperature dropped.
Which proposition is equivalent to “The team worked together to paint the fence”?
Select one:
a. Each member of the team painted part of the fence.
b. Painting the fence required teamwork.
c. The team cooperated to paint the fence.
d. The fence worked together to be painted by the team.
e. The fence was painted by more than one person.
c. The team cooperated to paint the fence
Which of the following sentences most clearly asserts more than one proposition?
Select one:
a. The rebels are waving a white flag.
b. The black ball in billiards is the eight ball.
c. The launch will be delayed.
d. Babe Ruth was a baseball player.
e. Saying the wrong thing on a first date is common.
a. The rebels are waving a white flag.
Do metaphors appear in the subject or in the predicate of a proposition?
Select one:
a. Only in the predicate.
b. Either the subject or the predicate.
c. Neither. They appear in between the subject and the predicate.
d. Only in the subject.
e. Whichever one appears at the end of the sentence.
b. Either the subject or the predicate
Which of the following sentences asserts that waiters depend on tips?
Select one:
a. If waiters depend on tips, then it is important to tip them.
b. Unless waiters depend on tips, leaving a $2 tip ought to be enough.
c. Oscar is very generous to waiters, who depend on tips.
d. Waiters who depend on tips have a lower minimum wage than other workers.
e. Either waiters depend on tips, or I have been misled.
c. Oscar is very generous to waiters, who depend on tips.
Is it possible to connect two propositions with the connective “if” in such a way that both propositions are asserted?
Select one:
a. Yes, because with “if,” the proposition following the word “if” is always asserted.
b. Yes, because with “if,” one of the two propositions (but not both) is always asserted.
c. Yes, because with “if,” both propositions are always asserted.
d. No, because with “if,” neither proposition is ever asserted.
e. No, because with “if,” the proposition following the word “if” is always unasserted.
d. No, because with “if,” neither proposition is ever asserted.
What is the predicate of the following proposition?
The adorable little baby was playing on the wooden floor.
Select one:
a. adorable
b. wooden floor
c. the adorable little baby
d. baby was playing
e. was playing on the wooden floor
e. was playing on the wooden floor
Can two propositions be equivalent if their subjects do not consist of the same words?
Select one:
a. Yes, because their subjects could have identical meanings.
b. Yes, but only if the predicates are also worded differently from each other.
c. Yes, but only if the predicates are worded identically.
d. No, because the subjects must be identical.
e. No, because they wouldn’t be about the same topic.
a. Yes, because their subjects could have identical meanings.
In a proposition, the subject is always:
Select one:
a. a term that refers to something or a class of things
b. the last word of the proposition
c. a term that tells us what something is doing
d. the meaning of the proposition, taken as a whole
e. the first word of the proposition
a. a term that refers to something or a class of things
