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Microbiology > Chapter 4 - Prokaryotic Cell Structure & Function II > Flashcards

Chapter 4 - Prokaryotic Cell Structure & Function II Flashcards

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1
Q

Prokaryotes have a _____ __________, which separates the cytoplasm from the exterior environment and allows the cytoplasm to have a chemical composition different from the environment

A

Cell membrane

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2
Q

Would life be possible without the cell membrane?

A

No, it would not be; compartmentalization is required for life

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3
Q

What are sterols?

A

Sterols are molecules in the membranes of eukaryotes that help fill the space caused by unsaturated fatty acid chains and help to maintain the correct fluidity of the membrane over a wide temperature range

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4
Q

Do prokaryotes have sterols in their membranes?

A

No; very few can make sterols, although a few in the animal body will incorprate host sterols into their membranes

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5
Q

What do prokaryotes have in place of sterols?

A

Hopanoids

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6
Q

What is the exception to the rule that prokaryotes lack sterols in their membranes?

A

Mycoplasmas

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7
Q

What are hopanoids?

A

They are pentacyclic compounds that fold into a shape similar to that of sterols; they are made from a sterol precursor, squalene; the pathway of squalene synthesis is nearly universal among cells, but prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ in the subsequent fate of squalene

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8
Q

What are hopanoids made from?

A

A sterol precursor called squalene

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9
Q

In prokaryotes, squalene is converted into _____________ while in eukaryotes it is converted into _____________.

A

Hopanoids

Sterols

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10
Q

The cell membrane is a two-dimensional __________.

A

Fluid

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11
Q

True or false? The forces that hold individual phospholipids together are weak.

A

True; it is because of these weak interactions that plasma membranes are fluid with components able to move laterally across the membrane

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12
Q

Although most components of the plasma membrane are fluid, some are not. What is one exception discussed in class?

A

FtsZ

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13
Q

What is the FtsZ ring?

A

A protein that starts cell division and is needed in the middle of the cell

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14
Q

What is required for molecules in the plasma membrane to be spatially oriented, meaning that they do not move?

A

They must be “anchored” in some way to limit their diffusion

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15
Q

The prokaryotic cell membrane has more ________ and different __________ than most membranes.

A

Protein

Proteins

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16
Q

Why does the plasma membrane of prokaryotes have so many proteins?

A

Because they lack the specialized membrane-bound organelles present in eukaryotes

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17
Q

Prokaryotic cells have to bring in nutrients and excrete wastes, but their membranes are impermeable to most polar compounds. How then do they get what they need into the cell and get rid of what they do not need?

A

Permeases

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18
Q

Most prokaryotes have membrane-embedded electron transport proteins to get _____________ from respiration or photophosphorylation.

A

Energy

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19
Q

What are three primary functions of prokaryotic cell membrane proteins?

A
  1. Membrane-embedded electron transport proteins to get energy from respiration or photophosphorylation
  2. Site of synthesis of cell membrane proteins, outer membrane proteins, periplasmic proteins, secreted proteins, lipids, and cell walls
  3. Contains sensory proteins that allow cell to determine certain aspects of the chemical or physical conditions in which it resides
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20
Q

Prokaryotic cell membranes are typically about ___% lipid by weight and ___% protein by weight; however, lipids weigh far less, so lipids outnumber proteins by __ to __.

A

25%

75%

30 to 1

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21
Q

Why do some prokaryotes invaginate their cell membranes?

A

To provide additional surface area, especially for those that have high respiratory and photophosphorylation rates

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22
Q

Most prokaryotes lack intracellular membrane-bound organelles; however, some prokaryotes do have membrane-bound organelles. The acidocalcisomes store __________ and the anammoxisomes oxidize ammonia and nitrate into _____________ _______.

A

Phosphate

Nitrogen gas

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23
Q

What is the ExPortal?

A

An organelle dedicated to the biogenesis of secreted proteins in Streptococcus pyogenes

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24
Q

Although bacterial and eukaryotic cell membranes are always phospholipid bilayers, _____________ cell membranes may be a bilayer or monolayer of ether lipids.

A

Archael

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25
Q

What phospholipid generally makes up archael cell membranes?

A

Glycerol-diphytane-diethers

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26
Q

How do glycerol-diphytane-ethers differ from traditional lipids?

A
  1. The lipids are branched, usually saturated hydrocarbon chains
  2. The hydrocarbon side chains are linked to the glycerol by ether bonds rather than ester bonds
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27
Q

In some thermophilic extremophiles, two diethers can be linked covalently tail to tail to form a __________-____________-__________ that span the membrane, leading to a monolayer.

A

Diglycerol-dibphytane-tetraether

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28
Q

All cells have special structure that contain chromosomes. In eukaryotic cells, the structure is bounded by a double-layered membrane, and the entire structure is called a nucleus. In prokaryotic cells, there is no nuclear envelope, and the structure is called a _____________________.

A

Nucleoid

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29
Q

In general, obligate symbionts and parasites have genomes much _________ than free-living, host-associated microbes.

A

Smaller

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30
Q

The nucleoid is _________________ and usually contains a single circular chromosome.

A

Haploid

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31
Q

Most bacteria have a single, circular chromosome with _____________________ origin of replication.

A

A single origin of replication

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32
Q

What are plasmids?

A

Plasmids are small circular DNA molecules that are distinguished from chromosomes by the lack of genes essential for growth under all conditions and for core cellular functions

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33
Q

Is it possible for multiple nucleoids to be present in a prokaryotic cell?

A

Yes, in prokaryotic cells undergoing rapid multiplication, two to four nucleoids containing identical copies of the chromosome may be seen

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34
Q

The prokaryotic chromosome is ____________________.

A

Supercoiled

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35
Q

What does it mean to say that a chromosome is supercoiled?

A

The double helix itself is twisted such that the double helix is under stress to unwind but the unwinding tension is opposed by the hydrogen bonds between bases

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36
Q

What enzyme introduces supercoiling?

A

DNA gyrase

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37
Q

What category of proteins assist in maintaining the proper amount of supercoiling?

A

HIstones or histone-like proteins

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38
Q

_________________________ is essential to proper transcription and DNA repair; cells that are unable to engage and maintain such structure will die.

A

Supercoiling

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39
Q

Is the nucleoid a highly ordered structure?

A

Yes, it is not simply a concentration of DNA

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40
Q

How is the nucleoid arranged?

A

The nucleoid is arranged with the origina of replication at one end and the terminus at the other; in between the chromosome is condensed into approximately 500 loops by special condensing proteins; the central portions of the nucleoid are very densely packed

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41
Q

Where does transcription occur?

A

On the surface of the nucleoid

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42
Q

Why does transcription occur on the surface of the nucleoid?

A

Because the densely packed core transitions to a more loosely packed region where the longer loops extend into the cytoplasm at the nucleoid surface

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43
Q

How does DNA gyrase work?

A

It takes a loop of DNA, makes a double stranded cut where the loop crosses over, passes the top part of the loop through the gap, and reseals the broken DNA; this introduces one new twist to the DNA

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44
Q

Transcription and translation in prokaryotes occur simultaneously and are said to be _______________.

A

Coupled

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45
Q

What does the compaction of DNA into the nucleoid require?

A

Neutralization of DNA charges by polyamines

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46
Q

Why does neutralization of DNA need to occur for DNA compaction?

A

Because at neutral pH, the phosphate groups on DNA carry a negative charge, thus making it difficult to pack DNA tightly

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47
Q

In eukaryotic cells, how is the negative charge of DNA neutralized?

A

Basic histone proteins

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48
Q

What neutralizes charge on DNA in prokaryotes?

A

Polyamines

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49
Q

What are polyamines?

A

Small organic compounds with two, three, or four amino groups spaced approximately as far apart as the phosphates in DNA

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50
Q

How are polyamines able to neutralize DNA?

A

Because their amino groups are protonated and thus positively charged at neutral pH, they can effectively neutralize the charges on DNA and llow it to pack tightly

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51
Q

Why is coupling of protein synthesis important in prokaryotes?

A

Because it is the basis for attenuation, a mechanism of gene regulation

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52
Q

What is attenuation?

A

Transcriptional attenuation is a regulatory mechanism that causes premature termination of transcription under certain conditions, thereby preventing the expression of the mRNA required for expression of the corresponding gene products

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53
Q

What are the two principle proteins of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton?

A

Actin

Tubulin

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54
Q

True of false: Prokaryotes have proteins that are part of a cytoskeleton functionally similar to that of eukaryotes.

A

True; it was previously believed that prokaryotes lacked any type of cytoskeleton, but we now know this to be incorrect

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55
Q

What maintains prokaryotic cell shape and form the prokaryotic mitotis appartus?

A

The actin-like cytoskeleton

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56
Q

What type of bacteria have a helical band of filaments made of an actin-like protein called MreB?

A

Bacillus and spirilla

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57
Q

What is MreB?

A

An actin-like protein that underlies the cell membrane of prokaryotic cells that has a similar tertiary structure to actin but lacks sequence similarity (only about 10% conservation)

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58
Q

When MreB filaments are disruption, what occurs?

A

Spherical cells developed; thus it is believed they determine cell shape

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59
Q

In addition to helping determine cell shape, what else are MreB filaments thought to be involved with?

A

Intracellular motility

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60
Q

What specifically does MreB seem associated with regarding intracellular motility?

A

They seem to consitute the prokaryotic equivalent of a mitotic apparatus. Soon after chromosome replication, specific sequences near the duplicated origin regions - the prokaryotic equivalent of centromeres - appear to become attached to MreB filaments and are moved rapidly to opposite ends of the cell

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61
Q

What is involved in bacterial cytokinesis?

A

A tubulin-like protein

62
Q

What type of filament does the tubulin-like protein form?

A

A band of filaments around the middle of the prokarytoic cell, which contract and separate the cells

63
Q

What is the name of the tubulin-like protein found in prokaryotes?

A

FtsZ

64
Q

What protein may help FtsZ find the middle of the cell?

A

The Min proteins prevent the FtsZ ring from being placed anywhere but near the mid cell and are hypothesized to be involved in a spatial regulatory mechanism that links size increases prior to cell division to FtsZ polymerization in the middle of the cell

65
Q

When chromosome segregation is completed by the actin-like ______ filaments, the _____ ______ contracts, constricting the cell and initiating cytokinesis

A

MreB filaments

FtsZ ring

66
Q

What is the cytoplasm?

A
  1. A concentrated solution of proteins and small molecules
  2. A dense suspension of ribosomes
  3. An area of storage granules of reserve nutrients, gas vacuoles, or other structures
67
Q

The cytoplasm is a dense suspension of ________________

A

Ribosomes

68
Q

There are typically how many ribosomes per prokaryotic cell?

A

Tens of thousands

69
Q

Why do prokaryotic cytoplasms have a granular appearance in thin sections in electron microscopy?

A

Because they have an immense number of ribosomes

70
Q

Why are there so many ribosomes in the cytoplasm?

A

Because making proteins is the principal job of a growing cell

71
Q

What are the sites of protein synthesis?

A

Ribosomes

72
Q

In growing cells, where are many ribosomes located?

A

Bound to the inner surface of the cell membrane

73
Q

What ribosomes make soluble proteins in the cell?

A

Cytoplasmic ribosomes

74
Q

What ribosomes make all of the membrane proteins of the cell as well as the periplasmic and secretory proteins?

A

Ribosomes bound to the inner surface of the cell membrane

75
Q

What are storage granules?

A

Polymeric reserves of nutrients

76
Q

What are the two most common reserves?

A

Glycogen

Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)

77
Q

What is glycogen a polymer of?

A

Glucose

78
Q

What is polyhydroxybutyrate a polymer of?

A

Beta-hydroxybutyric acid

79
Q

Why are reserves stored as polymers?

A

To prevent turgor pressure from going up too much - 100,000 molecules of surgar in a prokaryotic cell would have a large impact on the osmolarity of the cytoplasm; 100 molecules of polysaccharide, each 1000 sugar residues long, would contain the same amount of sugar but essentially no impact on osmolarity

80
Q

After carbon, what is the most often countered compound in storage granules?

A

Sulfur

81
Q

How is sulfur stored in the cell if it is stored at all?

A

As elementary sulfure or polysulfide

82
Q

Where are sulfur deposits usually located in the cell?

A

These sulfur globules are more liquid than solid and are usually deposited in the periplasm

83
Q

Where is phosphate stored?

A

In membrane-bound esicles called acidocalcisomes

84
Q

Are acidocalcisomes considered organelles?

A

Yes

85
Q

How is phosphate stored in acidocalcisomes?

A

As polyphosphate, long polymers of phosphate up to 700 phosphates in length

86
Q

Is the interior of an acidocalcisome acidic or basic?

A

Acidic

87
Q

How is phosphate transported into an acidocalcisome?

A

As pyrrophosphate and then polymerized into polyphosphate

88
Q

What drives the proton pump of the acidocalcisome?

A

Pyrophosphate hydrolysis

89
Q

What acidifies the acidocalcisome?

A

A proton pump in the membrane drive by pyrophosphate hydrolysis

90
Q

How is the high density of negative charge in the acidocalcisome partially neutralized (e.g., phosphate groups are negatively charged)?

A

By the pumping in of hydronium ions and partially by divalent cations like calcium for which an ATP-drive pump is embedded in the membrane of acidocalcisomes

91
Q

What provides buoyancy to aquatic cells?

A

Gas vacuoles

92
Q

What are two ways that prokaryotes remain afloat?

A

Motility

Gas vacuoles

93
Q

What are gas vacuoles composed of?

A

Many individual gas vesicles

94
Q

What are gas vesicles?

A

Hollow tubular structures of protein with conical ends; the proteins of which have a highly hydrophobic interior surface so that as vesicles form in water, they fill with whatever gas is in solution in the cytoplasm

95
Q

What gas fills the gas vesciles?

A

Whatever gas is in solution in the cytoplasm

96
Q

What allows prokaryotic cells to distinguish north from south?

A

Magnetosomes

97
Q

What is a magnetosome?

A

A row of granules of a magnetic mineral, enclosed in membranous invaginations of the cell membranes; the row of magnetite granules is organized by cytoskeletal filaments of actin-like protein MreB that lie just inside the membrane

98
Q

How are magnetosomes and sulfur globules similar?

A

They are both periplasmic - magnetosomes exist within invaginations of the cell membrane and are thus periplasmic, just as sulfur globules are

99
Q

How are magnetite granules organized?

A

By actin-like protein MreB

100
Q

What are bacteria with magnetosomes called?

A

Microaerophiles

101
Q

How do microaerophiles use magnetosomes?

A

To find the right concentration of oxygen

102
Q

What is magneto-aerotaxis?

A

Magnetotactic bacteria orient and migrate along geomagnetic field lines. Magneto-aerotaxis increases the efficiency of respiring cells to efficiently find and maintain position at a preferred microaerobic oxygen concentration

103
Q

What type of bacteria did we look at in class that has magnetosomes?

A

Magnetospirillum magnetotacticum

104
Q

Is the bacterial magnetosome a uniquely prokaryotic organelle?

A

Yes, it is

105
Q

What is the surface layer of protein external to the envelope called?

A

An S-layer

106
Q

What are capsules?

A

Gelantinous layers of polysaccharide external to the wall and the S-layer, if present

107
Q

What are the two most important roles of capsules?

A

Avoiding phagocytosis

Promoting adherence

108
Q

What can capsules accomplish for pathogens that infect animal tissues?

A

They can prevent immune system recognition

109
Q

What is a slime layer?

A

Excess capsular material that tend to slough off rather than remain with the cell

110
Q

What is a true capsule?

A

A discrete detectable layer of polysaccharides deposited outside the cell wall

111
Q

What is a slime layer?

A

A less discrete structure or matrix which embeds the cell

112
Q

What is a glycocalyx?

A

A thin layer of tangled polysaccharide fibers that occurs on the surface of cells growing in nature

113
Q

How do dental caries relate to bacterial capsules?

A

Bacteria in human mouoth must attach to tooth enamel or epithelial cells to avoid being swallowed. They do so by means of their capsules. As these bacteria metabolize nutrients, particularly sugars, they produce acids that dissolve the underlying enamel, forming a cavity or dental caries

114
Q

Why do we brush and floss our teeth?

A

To remove adherent bacteria, not to remove food particles

115
Q

Griffith’s description of “rough” versus “smooth” strains of strep were due to _____________

A

Capsules

116
Q

According to Dr. Bates, a glycocalyx can be either a __________ ______________, which is easily washable, or a ______________, which is firmly attached and tends to float

A

Slime layer

Capsule

117
Q

What is a biofilm?

A

An aggregation of cells held together in a common matrix of capsular material

118
Q

Do biofilms contain a single kind of microbe?

A

They can contain a single kind of mircobe or they can be mixed

119
Q

What are the maturation steps of a biofilm?

A
  1. Motile cells attach to a surface and begin to produce copious amounts of extracellular polysaccharides
  2. Cells in the biofilm become immotile and multiply
  3. Channels are formed through the biofilm to facilitate nutrient diffusion
  4. Cells of other species may be attracted to form a mixed biofilm; some cells regain motility and leave the biofilm; and
120
Q

What is a problem that biofilms pose to humans?

A

Cells in a biofilm are much more resistant to antibiotics

121
Q

What structures mediate the specific attachment of cells to other cells?

A

Pili

122
Q

What are pili?

A

Pili are fine, hair-like appendages protruding from the cell surface; they are fibers made up of many molecules of globular proteins

123
Q

What holds together the globular proteins that make up pili?

A

Quarternary forces

124
Q

What is the name of the protein monomer that makes up a pilus?

A

Pilin

125
Q

The proteins at the very tip of a pilus are often different from the pilins that make up the bulk of the pilus. What are the molecules at the tip called?

A

Adhesins

126
Q

What is the role of adhesins?

A

They have specific binding sites that allow the pilus to attach to specific structures

127
Q

How are type I pili formed?

A
  1. Pilins are synthesized by ribosomes on the cell membrane and then secreted into the periplasm (of gram-negative bacteria)
  2. Periplasmic chaperone proteins escort the pilins across the periplasm and transfer them to the growing pilus
  3. Pili are assmbled by the addition of pilins at the base
  4. Special adhesin proteins are usually at the tip of pili
128
Q

The pilus is a ______________ thred of pilin molecules.

A

Helical

129
Q

What determines the specificity of attachment of a pilus?

A

The adhesins at the tip of the pilus

130
Q

Are flagella organelles?

A

No

131
Q

What are flagella?

A

They are rigid, helical structures that rotate and move cells through liquid

132
Q

What are flagella composed of?

A

Flagellin

133
Q

How are flagellin molecules added?

A

At the tip, not the base

134
Q

How is the formation of pili and flagella different?

A

Flagellin molecules are added at the tip of the structure

Pilin molecules are added at the base of the structure

135
Q

Flagella typically have three distinct structural regions. What are they?

A
  1. Filament
  2. Hook
  3. Basal body
136
Q

WhatThere are four types of flagellation discussed in class. What are they?

A
  1. Polar
  2. Bipolar
  3. Peritrichous
  4. None
137
Q

What is polar flagellation?

A

When one or several flagella are found at the top of rod-shaped or spiral cells

138
Q

What is peritrichous flagellation?

A

A pattern of flagellation in which flagella may be distributed over the entire surface

139
Q

What is bipolar flagellation?

A

Flagellation on two opposing sides of the cell

140
Q

What part of the flagellum provides the motive force for swimming?

A

The filament

141
Q

What is a flagellum’s filament attached to?

A

The hook, a flexible region at the surface of the cell

142
Q

To what does the hook of a flagellum connect?

A

The basal body

143
Q

What is the basal body?

A

It is the part of the flagellum that embeds the flagellum firmly in the cell envelope and membrane and acts as a microscopic rotatry motor to rotate the hook and filament

144
Q

How do flagella function?

A

By being rotated; because they are helical, their rotation exerts force on the cell; in most cases, prokaryotic flagella push the cell in only one direction

145
Q

What do flagellum use as their energy source?

A

Proton motive force

146
Q

Flagella are rotated by the entry ions through the _____________ _______.

A

Basal body

147
Q

How many disks make up the basal body of prokaryotic flagellum?

A

Two

The bottom one of which is attached to a rod that penetrates through a hole in the other disk and attaches to the hook; the other disc is attached to the murein

148
Q

Which disk rotates during prokaryote flagella movement?

A

The bottom one; the other one remains stationary

149
Q

What does gliding motility require?

A

Contact with a surface

150
Q

In what group of bacteria has gliding been studied best?

A

Myxobacteria

151
Q

What two mechanisms seem to be available for prokaryotes that glide?

A
  1. Pili-mediated gliding
  2. Polysaccharide extrusion gliding
152
Q

What is Brownian motion?

A

The appearance of movement based upon the random knocking of water into lipid droplets or bacteria; it is completely random and not a type of motility

Microbiology (15 decks)

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