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Grade 10 Biology > Chapter 4: Animal tissue > Flashcards

Chapter 4: Animal tissue Flashcards

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1
Q

Name and describe the 4 basic types of tissue found in animals

A
  1. Epithelial tissue
    (forms the outer layer of the body and is the lining of many of the body cavities, where it has a protective function)
  2. Connective tissue
    (helps with the support and protection of organs and limbs and depending on the location in the body where it occurs, it may also connect separate organs or body parts)
  3. Muscular tissue
    (enables different forms of movement, both voluntary and involuntary)
  4. Nervous tissue
    (is responsible for carrying electrical and chemical signals/ impulses from the brain and central nervous system to the peripheral nervous system and vice versa)
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2
Q

What kind of cells are epithelial tissues formed by and give examples

A

Cells that cover surfaces (eg. skin) and line tubes and cavities (eg. digestive organs, blood vessels, kidney tubules and airways)

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3
Q

What kind of layers do epithelial tissues consist of

A

Usually a single layer of cells, however in certain cases there may be more than one layer

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4
Q

Fill in the missing word

All epithelial tissues are ______ attached to the _____ layers of a _____

A

All epithelial tissues are free surfaces attached to the underlying layers of a basement membrane

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5
Q

True or false

Epithelium can occur in glands where it is responsible for the secretion of minerals and enzymes

A

False

Epithelium can occur in glands where it is responsible for the secretion of hormones and enzymes

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6
Q

Describe the cells that epithelium consists of

A

Cells that are typically tightly arranged with little between the material and virtually no intercellular spaces.
Epithelium occurs in one or more cell layers, simple epithelium (single layer) and stratified epithelium (more than one cell layer)

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7
Q

What are the functions of epithelium

A
  1. Excretion
  2. Selective absorption
  3. Protection
  4. Trans cellular transport
  5. Sensors of extracellular conditions (intercellular communication)
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8
Q

What is the epidermis

A

The epithelium that forms the outer layer of the skin

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9
Q

What is the endothelium

A

The epithelium that covers the lining of blood vessels (arteries, veins, the inside of the heart)
Capillary vessels consist only of endothelium.

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10
Q

What is the basal membrane

A

It provides the framework on which the epithelium appears

It is a thin layer of loosely associated fibres and cells found between the epithelium and connective tissue

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11
Q

What are the cancers of the endothelium and mesothelium known as

A

sarcomas

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12
Q

What are cancers of the other epithelium (excluding the endothelium and mesothelium)

A

carcinomas

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13
Q

Name and describe the basis that epithelium can be classified under

A
  1. Shape of cells
    They can be squamous (flattened cells), cuboidal, columnar/cylindrical, or transition cells
  2. Stratification (more than one cell layer)
  3. Specialisation
    Ceratinized and ciliated epithelium
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14
Q

What are glands formed by

A

Glands are formed by folds of the epithelium

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15
Q

Name and describe the glands formed by the epithelium

A
  1. Endocrine gland
    They are vascular, ductless glands that release their secretions directly into the bloodstream. The blood transports the hormones to the target organs where they perform their functions eg. adrenal gland
  2. Exocrine gland
    They are glands that release their secretions via ducts to a body cavity or to the outside eg. salivary glands that secrete saliva into ducts that open in the mouth cavity
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16
Q

Describe the sensory function of the epithelium

A

Ciliated epithelial cells may contain receptors that can detect specific chemical compounds (eg. nose), be sensitive to heat (eg. skin) and also detect mechanical vibrations (eg. ear)

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17
Q

Define ceratinized tissue

A

hard, dead epithelial tissue for protection eg. outer layer of skin

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18
Q

Define the ciliated epithelium

A

epithelial cells that contain many tiny hair like projections eg. mucous membrane of airways

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19
Q

Describe the location of the squamous epithelium

A
  1. Forms the walls of the alveoli
  2. Lines the blood vessels on the inside
  3. The mouth, oesophagus and vagina are lined with squamous epithelium
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20
Q

Describe the structure of the squamous epithelium

A
  1. Thin and flat cells that are elliptically shaped and lie on the basement membrane
  2. Simple squamous epithelium is one cell thick
  3. Stratified squamous epithelium consists of many layers of thin flat cells
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21
Q

What are the functions of the squamous epithelium

A
  1. Diffusion of gasses takes place effectively through the thin squamous epithelium
  2. Endothelium lining blood vessels reduces friction of blood flow
  3. Cover and protect underlying tissue
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22
Q

Describe the location of the cuboidal epithelium

A
  1. Occurs in glands such as the thyroid gland, salivary gland and the renal tubules
  2. Are also found in the skin of sweat glands and sebum glands
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23
Q

Describe the structure of the cuboidal epithelium

A

It has a cubic shape

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24
Q

What are the functions of the cuboidal epithelium

A
  1. Serve as a protective function against bacteria and the wearing away of certain organs by lining various structures
  2. Prevent water loss
  3. Secretes substances (secretory tissue), such as saliva through the salivary glands and sebum or oil through the sebum glands
  4. It excretes substances (secretions) such as urine and the waste products in sweat
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25
Q

Describe the location of the columnar epithelium

A

It occurs in the small intestine and stomach

Villi structures which aid in absorption and consist of a single layer column epithelium

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26
Q

Describe the structure of the columnar epithelium

A
  1. Elongated cells, nuclei located at base of the cell
  2. Cells connected by tight conjunctions and receive their nutrients from the basement membrane
  3. Goblet cells (unicellular glands) occur between the columnar cells
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27
Q

What is the function of the columnar epithelium

A

In the villi, the columnar epithelium is responsible for the absorption of digested food, water, vitamins and minerals

Goblet cells in the villi secrete mucus

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28
Q

Describe the location of the ciliated columnar epithelium

A

It is found in moist environments in the body and lines the nostrils, trachea, bronchi, fallopian tubes (ovaries) and sperm tubes

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29
Q

Describe the structure of the ciliated columnar epithelium

A

Consists of columnar epithelium that contain little finger like projections called cilia. The cilia beat in a wave like motion to move particles, mucus or other substances around the body.

Goblet cells that secrete mucus occur between the ciliated epithelial cells

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30
Q

What are the functions of the ciliated columnar epithelium

A
  1. The combination of mucus and wave movements of the cilia allows the movement of substances in the various tubes
  2. In the airways, dust particles and foreign matter are moved out and excreted to protect the lungs
  3. In the fallopian tubes and sperm tubes, the wave movements of the cilia enable the movement of the egg cells and sperm cells
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31
Q

Columnar and cuboidal epithelial cells often turn into _______ cells that form ______

A

Columnar and cuboidal epithelial cells often turn into specialised gland cells that form multicellular glands

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32
Q

Describe the location of the glandular epithelium

A

Single cell glands (goblet cells) are found in the small intestine and airways
Multicellular glands such as salivary glands, the thyroid gland and lymph glands are formed by infoldings of the epithelium

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33
Q

Describe the structure of the glandular epithelium

A

Consists of cuboidal or columnar epithelium
Single cell glands consists of single, isolated gland cells eg. goblet cells distributed among other non glandular cells
Multicellular glands arise where epithelial tissue forms infoldings

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34
Q

What are the functions of the glandular epithelium

A

Goblet cells produce mucus that acts as a lubricant in the digestive tract to facilitate food movements and to keep the airways slimy and moist
Multicellular glands secrete enzymes that digest food as well as hormones, sweat, wax and saliva

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35
Q

Describe the nervous system

A

It is the body’s main control and communication centre.
It allows for a continuous flow of information between the environment, the brain and all other organs of the body.
This allows orderly co ordination of all the body’s functions and mechanisms.

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36
Q

How does the nervous system function

A
  1. Sensory function
    (sensory receptors)
    Detects changes in the external and internal environments
  2. Integrative function
    (central nervous system)
    Receives the information from the sensory receptors and coordinate a response to try restore the balance
  3. Motor function
    (effectors)
    Receive instruction from the integrative neurons to bring about an appropriate response and will restore the balance eg. muscles or glands
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37
Q

What are the main functions of the nervous system

A
  1. Gathers information using the senses
  2. Transmits information to processing areas
  3. Processes the information
  4. Formulates a response to stimuli
  5. Sends information back through the network to effector organs to execute a response
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38
Q

What are stimuli

A

Any physical or chemical changes in the environment that are capable of causing a response in an organism

It is a detectable change that will be received by a receptor and converted into an impulse, which will cause a response.

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39
Q

What are external example of stimuli

A

Changes in weather temperature
Changes in light
Dangerous circumstances

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40
Q

What are internal examples of stimuli

A

Changes in pH
Changes in blood pressure
Tension in muscles

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41
Q

What is a nerve impulse

A

A minute electrical signal (wave of depolarisation) which is caused by a stimulus and creates a difference in electrical charges across the membrane of a nerve fibre.

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42
Q

Name the main categories of stimuli

A

mechanical, chemical, thermal or electrical

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43
Q

Fill in the missing words

The cell membrane surrounds the neurons that are more permeable to ______, giving them _____

A

The cell membrane surrounds the neurons that are more permeable to sodium and potassium ions, giving them conducting properties

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44
Q

Describe what happens when a stimulus occurs

A

A stimulus generates a nerve impulse, the nerve impulse is then carried along the nerve fibres to the target muscle etc. The stimulus is never carried along the nerve fibres

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45
Q

What do nerves do

A

They respond to stimuli and transmit impulses from one body organ to another

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46
Q

What is the basic unit of the nervous system

A

nerve cells or neurons

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47
Q

What are nerves

A

Collections of nerve fibres held together in connective tissue bundles

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48
Q

What do neurons do

A

They carry electrochemical messages (impulses) through the body

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49
Q

What are bundles of neurons called

A

They are called nerves in the PNS and tracts in the CNS

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50
Q

Describe the basic structure of a nerve

A
  1. Consists of a large number of neuron fibres held together into bundles by connective tissue called perineurium
  2. Inside the bundles the neurons are surrounded by delicate tissue called the endoneurium
  3. The entire nerve is surrounded by a sheath of connective tissue, the epineurium
  4. An artery and a vein occur between the bundles, to nourish the fibres and remove waste
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51
Q

What does nervous tissue consist of

A

neurons and neuroglia

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52
Q

Describe neuroglia

A

The protective and supportive cells (also known as glial cells)
Plays an important role in making myelin which will protect the neurons

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53
Q

Describe neurons

A
  1. Basic cell units of nervous tissue
  2. Carry electrochemical messages (impulses) throughout the body
  3. Can function for a lifetime
  4. Cant undergo mitosis (cant be replaced when destroyed)
  5. Very high metabolic rate so they need a continuous supply of oxygen and glucose for survival
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54
Q

List and describe the classification of neurons

A
  1. Sensory neurons
    (afferent neurons, unipolar)
    Receive information and sends impulses to the spinal chord and brain
  2. Motor neurons
    (efferent neurons, multipolar)
    Conduct impulses from the spinal chord and brain to muscles and glands
  3. Interneurons
    (connective neurons, multipolar)
    Found throughout the brain and spinal chord that relay impulses from the sensory neurons to motor neurons
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55
Q

Briefly describe the structure of a neuron

A

The cell body is made up of a cell membrane, cytoplasm, cell organelles and a nucleus.

In addition they have long thin processes (fibres of cytoplasm) that extend from the cell body and allow nerve impulses to be carried in long distances.
The fibres in a typical neuron are dendrites and axons

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56
Q

Describe what dendrites are

A
  1. Afferent outgrowths
  2. Always carry the impulse to the cell body
  3. They are short, tapering processes that branch extensively to provide a large surface area to receive signals from other neurons
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57
Q

Describe what axons are

A
  1. Efferent outgrowths
  2. Always carries the impulse away from the cell body
  3. Each neuron has a single axon although certain axons may give off branches along their length
  4. An axon usually branches extensively at its end to form terminal branches
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58
Q

What is another word for sensory neurons

A

unipolar neurons

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59
Q

Describe unipolar neurons

A
  1. They have one axon and one dendrite branching off in opposite directions from the cell body
  2. These cells pass signals from the outside of the human body, such as touch, along to the central nervous system
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60
Q

Describe multipolar neurons

A
  1. Have one axon and many dendrite branches

2. They carry signals from the central nervous system to other parts of the body such as the muscles and glands

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61
Q

Describe reflex actions

A

It is a rapid, involuntary (automatic) response of an effector to a stimulus received by a receptor

It initially takes place subconsciously. The brain only becomes aware of it after the effector organ has already responded.

They have a protective function as they allow the body to react very rapidly to harmful stimuli and this protects the body from further injuries

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62
Q

Where do reflex centres that control protective reflexes mainly occur

A

They mainly occur in the spinal chord and include the withdrawal of the hand or foot away from painful stimulus and the knee jerk reflex

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63
Q

What are reflexes such as coughing, sneezing and blinking controlled by

A

The Medulla Oblongata in the brain

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64
Q

What are innate reflexes

A

They are natural/ unconditioned reflexes like coughing, sneezing and blinking. We are born with them and they occur automatically in response to a stimulus

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65
Q

What are acquired reflexes

A

They are conditioned/ learned reflexes that are learnt through repetition such as walking, writing and reading

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66
Q

What categories can be used to classify reflexes

A
  1. Somatic reflexes
    (somatic nervous system)
    involves skeletal muscles
  2. Autonomic reflexes
    (autonomic nervous system)
    active smooth muscles or cardiac muscles and glands
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67
Q

What is the difference between a reflex action and a reflex arc

A

A reflex action is the response and a reflex arc is the pathway of that response

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68
Q

Give the definition of a reflex arc

A

It is the neural pathway along which nerve impulses are transmitted from a receptor to an effector to bring about a response to a stimulus during a reflex action

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69
Q

What is the functional unit of the nervous system

A

the reflex arc

70
Q

What is the structural unit of the nervous system

A

neurons

71
Q

Name and describe the parts of the reflex arc

A
  1. Receptor: detects a stimulus and converts it into a nerve impulse
  2. Sensory neuron: conducts the nerve impulse from the receptor to the grey matter of the CNS
  3. Interneuron: serves as the reflex centre in the grey matter of the spinal chord and conducts the nerve impulses from the sensory neuron to the motor neuron
  4. Motor neuron: conducts the nerve impulses from the CNS to the effector
  5. Effector: muscle or gland that responds to the original stimulus
72
Q

Fill in the missing word

Nerve impulses are also conducted from the spinal cord in the ascending tracts, to the _______ of the brain or the _____ where the sensation is interpreted as pain

A

Nerve impulses are also conducted from the spinal cord in the ascending tracts, to the cerebral cortex of the brain or the parietal lobe where the sensation is interpreted as pain

73
Q

What is the significance of the reflex arc

A
  1. The reflex action is taken very rapidly to protect the hands, feet etc. from further injury
  2. It prevents overload of higher cognitive centres of the brain as it is not a conscious response
74
Q

Neurons join together to form a ________ system throughout the body

A

Neurons join together to form a continuous conduction system throughout the body

75
Q

True or false

Successive neurons are not in direct contact with each other, they are separated by a small gap

A

True

76
Q

What is the gap between successive neurons called

A

the synaptic cleft

77
Q

What is the physiological (functional) connection that develops between successive neurons

A

the synapse

78
Q

Where do nerve impulses move

A

Nerve impulses move along the axon to the synaptic knobs of the terminal branches

79
Q

Describe synaptic knobs

A

In each synaptic knob there are multiple synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters (acetylcholine, norepinephrine, epinephrine or seratonin)

Mitochondria are also found which provide energy for transmission.

The synaptic cleft is bordered by a pre-synaptic membrane on the axon side of the synaptic knob and by a post-synaptic membrane on the dendrite side

80
Q

What happens when the synaptic vesicles on the surface of synaptic knobs burst

A

The nerve impulses cause the synaptic vesicles to burst on the surface and release the neurotransmitters into the cleft
The neurotransmitters move across the cleft and attach to the post synaptic membrane
It acts as a trigger for electrical signals that, via the dendrite, act as nerve impulses to the cell body of the next neuron.

81
Q

Why are synapses important

A
  1. They ensure that the flow of impulses occurs in only one direction (because the vesicles containing neurotransmitters occur only in the axon terminal buds)
  2. They allow the spread of impulses because, when an impulse reaches the synapse it stimulates several post synaptic neurons and transports the impulse to different destinations
  3. They also continuously filter out all unnecessary or unimportant stimuli. If a neuron is constantly stimulated, the synapses will not be able to renew its supply of transmitters quick enough
82
Q

What do muscles consist of

A

muscle fibres, connective tissue, nervous tissue and vascular tissue

83
Q

What are the 3 main types of muscles

A

Smooth muscles, skeletal/voluntary muscles and cardiac muscle

84
Q

Describe the locality of skeletal/voluntary/striated muscles

A

The muscles that join the tendons to parts of the skeleton

85
Q

Describe the structure of skeletal/voluntary/striated muscles

A
  1. They consist of numerous muscle fibres joined in bundles by a sheath of connective tissue known as the perimecium
  2. Each bundle of fibres, surrounded by a perimecium, is known as a fascilulus
  3. Numerous fassiculi are surrounded by epimeicium
  4. Each muscle fibre (2.5 mm long) is surrounded by a tough sheath, the sarcolemma. The ground tissue of the muscle fibre (cytoplasm) inside the sarcolemma is called the sarcoplasm
  5. Many oval nuclei occur in the sarcoplasm
  6. Each muscle fibre consists of a number of myofibrils that form the contractile units of the muscle
  7. The muscles have alternating dark and light bands (striata), that give voluntary muscles their striated appearance
  8. Nerve fibres are attached to the sarcolemma. The nerve fibres conduct messages from the brain to muscles to initiate the contraction or relaxation of the muscle fibres , which bring about movement. Blood capillaries are found among muscle fibres to assist in the exchange off nutrients, gases and waste products
86
Q

Describe the locality of smooth muscles

A

Occurs in the walls of organs like the digestive canal, blood vessels, the bladder, uterus and in the eye

87
Q

Describe the structure of smooth muscles

A
  1. Consists of spindle shaped cells, each with a central nucleus- contains sarcoplasm surrounded by a sarcolemma
  2. Does not have a striated appearance
88
Q

Describe the functions of smooth muscles

A
  1. Is under control of the autonomic nervous system and controls involuntary muscles
  2. Causes rhythmic contractions and relaxation in the digestive canal, called peristalsis. It pushes food on along the canal
89
Q

Describe the location of cardiac muscle

A

It is only found on the walls of the heart

90
Q

Describe the structure of cardiac muscle

A
  1. Consists of branched fibres with nuclei
  2. Among the muscle fibres connective tissue with blood vessels and nerves occur
  3. The branched fibres are joined by small muscle bridges(intercalated discs) to form a continuous muscle mass (sincytium)
  4. Cardiac muscle is also striated but as conspicuous as skeletal muscle
  5. Cardiac muscle continuously contracts and relaxes and is involuntary
  6. Cardiac muscle is responsible for the pump action of the heart
91
Q

What are the functions of muscles overall

A
  1. Muscle fibres contain contractile filaments (myofibrils) that can exert power and cause movement
  2. That can lead to the movement of limbs, the entire organism or organs in the organism
  3. The contraction of the cardiac and smooth muscles is involuntary and is necessary for the survival function of the body eg. the beating of the heart and for the peristaltic movements of the intestine to transport food through the digestive system
  4. The contraction of the voluntary muscles is delicately controlled. That enables accurate movements eg. the movement of the eye and even that of the bigger limbs
92
Q

What are the types of connective tissue

A
  1. Proper connective tissue (aerolar and dense)
  2. Supporting connective tissue (bones and cartilage)
  3. Liquid connective tissue (blood)
93
Q

What are the types of connective tissue

A
  1. Proper connective tissue (areolar and dense)
  2. Supporting connective tissue (bones and cartilage)
  3. Liquid connective tissue (blood)
94
Q

What are the most important cells of connective tissue and decribe them

A

The most important cells of connective tissue are fibroblasts, that inter alia synthesize fibres. Almost all types of connective tissue contains fibres. Fibroblasts are mobile cells, can undergo mitosis and can synthesize all types of connective tissue.

95
Q

What are the most important cells of connective tissue and describe them

A

The most important cells of connective tissue are fibroblasts, that inter alia synthesize fibres. Almost all types of connective tissue contains fibres. Fibroblasts are mobile cells, can undergo mitosis and can synthesize all types of connective tissue.

96
Q

What other substances can also be found in some types of connective tissue

A

Macrophages, lymphocytes and sometimes leucocytes

Some types of connective tissue contain specialised cells that are not found in other connective tissue

97
Q

Describe the matrix of connective tissue

A

It has a high concentration of cells and fibres are relatively less dense

98
Q

What are the organic parts of connective tissue

A

The protein fibres are collagen, elastic or reticular fibres

99
Q

What does collagen do in connective tissue

A

It gives sturdiness and strength and prevents that connective tissue separates from surrounding tissues

100
Q

What do elastic fibres consist of

A

They consist of the protein elastin, that can stretch one or one and a half times their length and return to their original length and shape.

101
Q

What do elastic fibres do

A

They make the connective tissue pliable

102
Q

What do reticular fibres consist of

A

They consist of a network of thin collagen fibres that give support to the tissue and organs to which it is attached

103
Q

Describe the locality of areolar connective tissue

A

Surrounds blood vessels and organs

104
Q

Describe the structure of areolar connective tissue

A
  1. It contains parts of all other types of connective tissue and has the consistency of a ball of cotton pulled apart
  2. Collagen fibres are wide and elastic fibres are thin
  3. The cavities among the cells and fibres are filled with the matrix
105
Q

What are the functions of areolar connective tissue

A
  1. Joins organs and supports cell and tissue structures
  2. Is elastic and allows movement
  3. Assists the immune system in the defence against diseases and the healing of wounds
  4. Anchors epithelium
106
Q

Describe the locality of dense fibrous connective tissue

A
  1. Occurs in tendons and ligaments

2. Forms part of the skin

107
Q

Describe the structure of dense fibrous connective tissue

A
  1. Contains large amounts of collagen fibres and relatively few cells or little matrix
  2. May have a regular appearance with fibres that are arranged in parallel, or an irregular appearance. Irregular fibrous connective tissue is found in localities where there is tension in the tissue eg. the dermis of the skin
108
Q

What are the functions of dense fibrous connective tissue

A
  1. Tendons attach muscles to one another and attach muscles to bone
  2. Ligaments attach bone to one another
109
Q

Describe the location of cartilage

A
  1. Skelton of sharks
  2. Whole skeleton of foetus
  3. Hyaline cartilage covers ends of long bones and in joints, between the ribs and breast bone, in the larynx, bronchi and trachea
  4. Elastic cartilage in the outer ear and part of the larynx
  5. Fibrous cartilage in the discs between vertebrae and in knee joint (prevents friction)
110
Q

Describe the structure of cartilage

A
  1. Cartilage is connective tissue with much matrix and a variable amount of fibres
  2. Chondrocytes produce the matrix and fibres. They are found in fluid filled cavities in the cartilage, the lacunae. Hyaline cartilage has few collagen and elastic fibres, milky/clear matrix and the lacunae are randomly spread
  3. Elastic cartilage has large amounts of elastic fibres that make it flexible
  4. Fibrous cartilage has a large amount of collagen that makes it very strong
111
Q

What are the functions of cartilage

A
  1. Hyaline cartilage on the ends of long bones reduces friction and serves as a cushion for the articulation of these bones(joints) and keeps air passages open
  2. Elastic cartilage gives shape and pliability
  3. Fibrous cartilage serves as a shock absorber between vertebrae and deepens the articular cavities in some joints to prevent injuries
112
Q

What type of matrix material does bone contain

A

organic and inorganic matrix

113
Q

What does inorganic matrix consist of

A

mineral salts, mainly calcium salts that make bone hard

114
Q

What happens when there is insufficient organic matrix in the bone tissue

A

The bones may soften or bend

115
Q

What type of cells does bone tissue contain

A

osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts

116
Q

What do osteoblasts do

A

They produce new bone tissue for growth and repair.
Osteoblasts also deposit bone material in the matrix and the matrix surrounds it and keeps it alive, but in a reduced metabolic state

117
Q

What are osteocytes

A

Living cells with a high metabolic rate. They are found in lacunae in bone tissue

118
Q

What do osteoclasts do

A

They break bone down for repair and release stored calcium

119
Q

Where do osteoclasts usually occur

A

The surface of bone tissue

120
Q

What are the types of bone tissue

A

Compact bone and spongy bone

121
Q

Where can compact bone and spongy bone be found

A

Compact bone is found in the shafts (diaphysis) of long bones and the surface of flat bones, while spongy bone is found at the ends (epiphysis) of long bones

122
Q

What are the sub units of compact bone

A

osteons

123
Q

What is in the centre of each osteon

A

The haversian canal which contains a blood vessel, nerve and lymph duct

124
Q

Fil in the missing words

There are _____ called lamellae around the haversian canal. In the lamellae, small cavities known as the _____ are found. ____ occur in the lacunae.

A

There are concentric layers, called lamellae around the haversian canal. In the lamellae, small cavities known as the lacunae are found. Osteocytes occur in the lacunae.

125
Q

What is periosteum

A

Connective tissue surrounding bone

126
Q

With what are osteocytes connected

A

Osteocytes are connected with one another as well as the haversian canal and periosteum by tiny canals such as canaliculi

127
Q

What do osteons form

A

Osteons form haversian canals, that together form bone tissue

128
Q

What does spongy bone consist of

A

Spongy bone consists of small platelets, know as trabeculae. They support and strengthen spongy bone

129
Q

What is spongy bone filled with and how can aging affect it

A

Spongy bone is filled with red bone marrow and contains red blood cells in different stages of development. With age these platelets may break and make bone less resistant to injuries

130
Q

What are the functions of bone tissue

A
  1. Bone tissue forms the internal skeleton of vertebrae and gives structure and sturdiness to these animals as well as places for attachment of muscles
  2. It forms a system of joints and levers to enable movement
  3. Bones protect delicate organs eg. the skull that protects the brain and bones of the ribcage that protect the heart and lungs
  4. Red bone marrow in spongy bone produces red blood cells
131
Q

True or false

Adipose/ fat tissue is not regarded as connective tissue, although it contains fibroblasts

A

False

Adipose/ fat tissue is regarded as connective tissue, although it does not contain fibroblasts or a real matrix, it contains only a few fibres.

132
Q

What does adipose tissue consist of and what does it do

A

Adipose tissue consists of adipocytes (fat cells) that collect and store fat in the form of triglycerides for energy metabolism when needed

133
Q

What functions can adipose tissue have in the body

A

Adipose tissue serves as insulation to maintain body temperature of endothermic animals.
It also protects certain organs against injuries, like the eyes and the kidneys

134
Q

How does adipose tissue look under a light microscope and why does it look that way

A

Under the light microscope adipose tissue looks empty, because the techniques of preparation for microscopy extract the cells from the fat

135
Q

Why can blood be regarded as connective tissue

A

It has a matrix

136
Q

What are the living cells in the blood and which is more abundant

A

Red blood cells (erythrocytes) and white blood cells (leucocytes)

137
Q

Where are red blood cells made

A

in the red bone marrow

138
Q

Describe the structure of red blood cells

A

They do not have a nucleus and are biconcave in shape

139
Q

How does the shape of red blood cells benefit them

A

Their biconcave shape makes them flexible so that they can squeeze through narrow capillaries
It also gives them a bigger surface to volume ratio so that they can absorb and release gasses faster

140
Q

How long is the lifespan of red blood cells

A

120 days

141
Q

What protein do red blood cells contain, describe this protein

A

Haemoglobin, it contains a pigment known as heme that has an iron (Fe) at its centre that combines with oxygen. Haemoglobin releases oxygen as required and takes up carbon dioxide

142
Q

How do red blood cells assist gaseous exchange

A

Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and returns carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs

143
Q

What are leucocytes and where are they produced

A

White blood corpuscles(cells), they are produced by the red bone marrow, spleen and lymph glands

144
Q

What are leukocytes

A

Leukocytes are the most important white blood cells found in peripheral blood(blood in the blood vessels)

145
Q

What colour do white blood cells have

A

They are colourless

146
Q

How long is the lifespan of white blood cells

A

a few days/hours

147
Q

Describe the shape of white blood cells

A

They have nuclei and the shape of the nucleus can be used to differentiate between the different types

148
Q

What types of white blood cells are there

A

lymphocytes, neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, eosinophils and basophils

149
Q

What are the 2 classifications of white blood cells

A

granular and agranular

150
Q

What do lymphocytes do

A

They protect the body against foreign antigens and other foreign substances.
The B lymphocytes produce antibodies that protect the body against antigens

151
Q

What are neutrophils

A

Phagocytic cells that take in and destroy microorganisms like bacteria that enter the body, early in immune control

152
Q

What do monocytes do

A

They give rise to phagocytic macrophages that remove dead and damaged cells in the body

153
Q

What do eosinophils and basophils do

A

They assist with inflammatory reactions in the body

154
Q

Give another word for platelets

A

thrombocytes

155
Q

Where are platelets produced

A

In the bone marrow and they are fragments of bone marrow cells

156
Q

Do thrombocytes have a nucleus

A

They have no nuclei

157
Q

What do platelets do

A

They assist in the clotting of blood and prevent excessive bleeding

158
Q

What is plasma

A

Th pale yellow component of blood that allows the rest of the components of blood to float in suspension

159
Q

How much of the blood is plasma

A

55%

160
Q

What does plasma contain

A

dissolved proteins, hormones, urea and carbon dioxide

161
Q

What is the function of plasma

A

The main functions are to transport nutrients, cells and metabolic waste products and maintain blood volume

162
Q

What is the ABO system

A

The main blood groups; A, B, AB and O

163
Q

What do erythrocytes have on their surface

A

They carry specific antigens on their surfaces

164
Q

Where are antibodies found

A

In the blood plasma

165
Q

What happens when agglutination occurs in the erythrocyte

A

The antibodies in the blood plasma cause agglutination if the same type of antigen occurs in the red blood cell

166
Q

What happens if two different blood types are mixed and agglutination occurs

A

The two blood types are incomplete

167
Q

What does Rh+ or Rh- mean

A

It is the rhesus factor indicating that a persons blood has the Rh protein and negative means the protein is absent

168
Q

What determines ABO and Rh

A

The genetic combination from the mother and father

169
Q

Which is dominant in Rh

A

the positive is dominant

170
Q

What happens when blood from different blood groups are mixed

A

Agglutination can occur if the blood groups are incomplete and can even cause death

171
Q

What is the universal donor

A

Blood group O, it is compatible with all other blood groups because it contains no antigens

172
Q

What is the universal recipient

A

Blood group AB, because it contains no antibodies and blood group A and B can be donated safely to them

Grade 10 Biology (9 decks)

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