Chapter 3 Lenses for Conceptualizing Problems and Interventions: Biopsychosocial Dimensions Flashcards
Disease model
rooted in physiological processes that affect behavior and development
Medical model
this model emerged from Freud’s ideas about the roots of psychological problems as well as from advances in medicine and in our understanding of physiological problems as well as from advances in medicine and in our understanding of physiological processes
The medical model posits that
- Diseases can be identified through a list of symptoms
- These symptoms can be alleviated through logical and scientific examination of the “patient”
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
describes the symptoms, etiology (causes), prevalence, and other aspects of most major mental health problems
The nervous system
a complex electrochemical communication system for the body
Central nervous system
consists of the brain and the spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system
connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body
brainstem
regulates physiological functions such as sleep, temperature, and heart rate
Thalamus
sits at the top of the brainstem and serves as a relay station for sensory information - has to do with sleep and wakefulness
Cerebral cortex
the principal outer structure is responsible for complex mental functions such as planning and thinking
Neocortex
the outermost part makes up about 80% of the cortex - language, judgment, and abstract reasoning
Right hemisphere
responsible for helping us process emotion, nonverbal communication, and sensations such as touch and pressure
Left hemisphere
helps us to process things like language and fine motor movements
Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area
these two areas are located in the left hemisphere and help us to control and understand language
Corpus callosum
this large bundle of axons connects the two hemispheres and relays information between the two
Occipital lobes
These two areas at the back of the cerebral cortex allow us to process information such as color, shape, and motion
Temporal lobes
two lobes at the sides of the cerebral cortex are responsible for hearing, language, and memory
Frontal lobes
Large areas at the front of the cerebral cortex are responsible for personality, intelligence, and voluntary control of muscles (Phineas Gage)
Prefrontal lobes
These lobes on top of the head are responsible for attention, spatial location, and motor control
Limbic system
Between the brainstem and the cerebral cortex are two important structures
Amygdala
helps us to recognize and discriminate things necessary to our survival, such as mates, food, and social rivals
hippocampus
helps us to determine what information to store as memories and which information to recall
Traumatic brain injuries (TBI) and chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)
a degenerative brain disease found among athletes, military veterans, and others who experience repetitive brain trauma
Neurons
cells that process information
Neurons key structures
- cell body with the nucleus
- dendrites
- axon
- myelin sheath
- collateral sprouting
- substitution of function
- neurogenesis
Dendrites
allow neurons to receive input from other neurons
Axon
carries information away from the cell body to other neurons
Myelin sheath
a layer of fat covering the axon that facilitates the nerve impulses that allow neurons to communicate
Collateral sprouting
The axons of healthy neurons adjacent to damaged ones grow new branches
Substitution of function
A damaged region of the brain is taken over by another, healthier area of the brain
Neurogenesis
new neurons are generated; occurs in the hippocampus
Neurotransmitters
chemicals that can activate electrical impulses in the nervous system
The 3 ways neurons communicate with each other
- synapse
- terminal buttons
- receptor sites
Synapse (or synaptic gap)
Since neurons do not directly touch one another, they must use chemicals to carry messages across the space between them (lie between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another)
Terminal buttons
little sacs containing neurotransmitters
Receptor sites
The dendrites of the receiving neuron have a variety of receptor sites, each of which accommodates a specific neurotransmitter. If there is a fit between the receptor and the neurotransmitter, the receiving neuron will accept the signal
Reuptake
once the transmission of a neural impulse is complete, some of the neurotransmitter molecules that have not fit into receptor sites are reabsorbed into the axon
Endocrine system
consists of a set of glands that work in concert with the nervous system
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Stimulates neurons to fire; involved in muscle movements, learning, and memory
Dopamine
Controls voluntary movements; affects sleep, mood, learning, and attention
Endorphin
Stimulates neurons to fire and depresses nervous system activity
GABA
Inhibits neurons from firing
Glutamate
Stimulates neurons to fire; involved in learning and memory
Norepinephrine
Inhibits firing of neurons in the central nervous system; stimulates neurons to fire in the heart, muscles, intestines, and urogenital tract; controls alertness
Oxytocin
Associated with love and bonding
Serotonin
Regulates sleep, mood, attention, and learning
How many pairs of chromosomes does the nucleus of our cells contain?
23 pairs
Sex chromosomes
determine whether we are male (XY) or female (XX)
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Carries our genetic information
genes
units of hereditary information composed of segments of DNA that direct and regulate the production of proteins, or amino acids, which are the basis of all of our bodily functions
homozygous
when a pair of chromosomes consists of two dominant or two recessive genes
heterozygous
when a pair of chromosomes consists of a dominant and a recessive gene
genotype
The genes that we inherit and carry - that we possess in our chromosomes
phenotype
the way in which genes are expressed - that are actually observable, such as blue eyes
Dominant single-gene disorder
Huntington’s disease
Recessive single-gene disorder
Cystic fibrosis
X-linked single-gene disorder
Hemophilia
Medical model critiques
- Because DSM-5 criteria are so widely used and are often a part of clients’ permanent health care records, any use of the manual needs to be taken seriously
- Even though the criteria for the disorders are generally based on research, there is still much room for speculation and error
- Besides being subject to error, the research that supports the diagnostic criteria in the DSM-5 is open to criticism
- If clients learn of their diagnosis, the symptoms or disorder might become a self-fulfilling prophecy
- The medical model tends to focus exclusively on the individual when the issues might be in the environment as well.
- the medical model focuses on clients’ problems, ignoring their strengths and resources
cognition
mental processes
Piaget’s theory
describes how people develop their capacities to think, learn, and process information from birth through their teenage years
Sensorimotor stage
birth to 2 years: object permanence
Object permanence
when children learn that even if objects and events are out of range of their senses, they continue to exist
Preoperational stage
2-7 years- egocentrism, animism, centration, irreversibility, classification, seriation, lack conservation,
Egocentrism
children cannot take into account the perspectives of others when thinking about objects or events
animism
the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities
centration
they can focus on one aspect of an object at a time
conservation
understanding that an object remains the same even if its characteristics change, such as its shape or the way it is contained
irreversibility
inability to think about events in reverse order
classification
children can differentiate between two objects based on their differences and unique properties
seriation
children should be able to differentiate among objects based on their size, weight, or length
Concrete operations stage
7-11 years - get past egocentrism, master skills associated with classification, conservation and seriation
Formal operations stage
11-16 years - hypothetical-deductive reasoning, abstract thinking, consider multiple aspects of an object or event at one time, formulate hypotheses about what might happen if certain variables were manipulated, and analyze the properties of an object or event to derive conclusions about its nature or behavior
The 4 stages of Piaget’s Theory
- Sensorimotor stage
- Preoperational stage
- Concrete operations stage
- Formal operations stage
Accommodation
when we change our schema about something because new information we receive about it does not fit our preexisting ideas about how that something should be
Assimilation
when we bring in new information about something to fit our existing schema
Piaget’s Theory critiques
- Piaget’s model of the development process stops in adolescence
- Piaget developed his ideas based on observations of his own children; might be biased
- tends to focus on what is “normal” for development; not flexible
- The stage-like progression of development tends to underestimate the variations that take place in development
- Piaget doesn’t pay enough attention to sociocultural factors that affect cognitive development
- Research suggests that he may have underestimated children’s abilities
- skills assumed to be mastered in the formal operations stage do not develop predictably or universally at any specific time
Sigmund Freud
leader in developing psychoanalytic theory
3 concepts or mental structures thought to be at the crux of personality (Freud)
Id, Ego, Superego
Id
an element of our unconscious, which is made up of our basic needs and drives sex, thirst, and hunger
pleasure principle (id)
governs the id to ensure that needs are satisfied
Ego
the rational aspect of the mind - keeps the Id in check
Reality principle
governs the ego by ensuring that actions are evaluated according to their consequences
Superego
the conscience - based on morals and values
Freud’s Stages in Psychosexual Development
- Oral stage (birth-18 months)
- Anal stage (18 months-3 years)
- Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
- Latency stage (6 years-puberty)
- Genital stage (puberty on)
Oral stage (birth to 18 months)
Pleasure centers on activities of the mouth, including feeding, sucking, chewing, and biting. Child focuses on receiving and taking
Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years)
Pleasure centers on anal activities such as toileting. Child focuses on giving and withholding
Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
Pleasure centers on genitals and self-manipulation
Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)
Sexual instincts are unaroused, and the child focuses on play, learning and socialization
Genital stage (puberty on)
Pleasure centers on love, work, and maturing sexually
fixation
a person who does not succeed in a stage and becomes stuck in one stage
Defense mechanisms
unconscious attempts to hide, suppress, or otherwise control the conflict
Denial
Avoidance of unpleasant realities by ignoring or refusing to acknowledge them; probably the simplest and most primitive defense mechanism
Identification with the aggressor
increasing feelings of worth by taking on the attributes of people or institutions of greater power, strength, or importance
Intellectualization
Creating emotional distance through rationalizing or using logic
Projection
Blaming others for one’s own shortcomings and mistakes
Reaction formation
Developing attitudes and behaviors that are the opposite of repressed and unconscious dangerous or unpleasant impulses and desires
Regression
Retreating to behaviors that were appropriate in earlier stages of development that bring easy satisfaction of desires or needs
Repression
Unconscious process whereby painful or dangerous thoughts and desires are excluded from consciousness and can be revealed through dreams, jokes, or slips of the tongue
Sublimation
Consciously satisfying socially unacceptable needs and desires through socially acceptable activities
Withdrawal
Retreating into solitude to avoid painful emotions and situations
Common Defense Mechanisms in Psychoanalytic Theory (9)
- denial
- identification with the aggressor
- intellectualization
- projection
- reaction formation
- regression
- repression
- sublimation
- withdrawal
Oedipus complex
a dilemma or conflict in which boys fall in love with their mothers, and at the same time feel antagonistic toward their fathers because of the rivalry for their mother’s attention
feminine Oedipus attitude/Electra complex
The female version of the Oedipus complex
Freudian Theory critiques
- frequently doesn’t seem applicable to client situations; can be a stretch to relate problems of daily living to psychosexual development
- Psychoanalysis takes a very long time
- The constructs in this theory are almost impossible to define, measure, and test
- focuses solely on the individual; avoiding environmental factors
- ideas based on experiences of almost exclusively wealthy Caucasian women
- Oedipus complex is male-centered and sexist
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
places greater emphasis on social vs sexual or biological influences in the environment and proposes that a person progresses through eight stages of psychosocial development
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development (8)
- Stage One: Trust vs. Mistrust (0-18 months)
- Stage Two: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 months to 3 years)
- Stage Three: Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6)
- Stage Four: Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12)
- Stage Five: Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Adolescence)
- Stage Six: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood)
- Stage Seven: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Adulthood)
- Stage Eight: Integrity vs. Despair (Old Age)
Trust vs. Mistrust (0-18 mo)
Children learn to trust others, particularly their caregivers. If their needs are not met, infants learn to mistrust others
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 mo to 3 years)
Children learn to do things, such as eat and dress, independently. If they can’t act independently, they develop a sense of self-doubt
Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6)
Children take initiative to learn, explore, and manipulate their surroundings. If they are discourages, they will lack confidence to act on their interests and will not take the initiative to shape their lives
Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12)
Children who are able to find ways to succeed will learn to be industrious (being productive). Those who experience repeated failures will develop feelings of inferiority, hampering their chances of success in the future
Identity vs. Identity Confusion (adolescence)
Adolescents are exploring who they are and developing their sense of identity. If they have difficulty, they will be confused about who they are
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Adulthood)
Adults begin to look past their own lives to the well-being of those around them. Adults who can’t do this become self-absorbed, stagnated, and unable to be productive for the sake of others
Integrity vs. Despair (Old Age)
People in older age reflect on their lives and take inventory of their successes. Those who aren’t satisfied have a sense of despair and mourn for lost opportunities
Epignetic principle
people have a biological blueprint that dictates how they grow and reach maturity
Erikson’s Theory critiques
- Erikson’s emphasis on stages of development can be limiting
- The constructs of this theory are quite abstract and therefore difficult to measure and test
- Societal norms and expectations about the developmental processes that should occur at various ages are always changing
- This theory may lack relevance for some ethnic and other minoritized groups
epigenetic principle
researchers are increasingly realizing just how much our environment shapes our biological development
“Pure” behaviorists
argue that personality development occurs through learning and shaping behaviors
Classical conditioning
focuses on how people respond to stimuli in their environment
Unconditioned Stimulus
a stimulus that leads to an automatic response
unconditioned response
an unlearned response that occurs naturally in reaction to the unconditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus
a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response
conditioned response
an automatic response established by training to an ordinarily neutral stimulus
Operant conditioning
the consequences of behavior that result in behavior change
Reinforcement
refers to a consequence that occurs immediately after a behavior that increases the strength of that behavior
Positive reinforcement
adding something positive to strengthen a behavior
negative reinforcement
taking away something negative to strengthen a behavior
punishment
weakening or reducing the frequency of a behavior by adding something negative or removing something positive
Social learning theory/ social cognitive theory
people are active agents in their learning
modeling
we can learn behaviors by watching how others do things and then imitating those behaviors
self-efficacy
people’s expectations that they can perform a task successfully
systematic desensitization
builds on the concepts of positive reinforcement and self-efficacy
Learning theory critiques
- treat people as passive agents who sit back and allow things to “happen” to them
- do not consider the ways in which the environment influences people’s decisions and behaviors
Existentialism
focuses on the meaning of life and people’s views on existence
humanistic perspective
focuses on the ways people view life and being. rooted in the belief that people are active agents in their lives and have the ability to reason, make choices, form their experiences, and control their destinies
person- centered therapy
based on a person’s self-concept. people have a natural inclination toward self-actualization
According to Carl Rogers person-centered therapy, how do we achieve self-actualization?
- our self-concept is congruent with our experiences
- we experience positive regard (respect, esteem)
- we have positive self-regard (we value ourselves)
Gestalt therapy
posits that people go through life with “unfinished business” that affects behavior and relationships
Transactional analysis
shares the notion that maladaptive behavioral patterns established in childhood often get in the way of later well-being
structural analysis
looks at people’s ego states, or the structures that make up personality
game analysis
examines specific patterns of interactions and behaviors among two or more people
Person-centered/participant directed service models
based in humanistic and strengths perspectives as well as the social work value of self-determinism
self/consumer-directed services
help people of all ages and ability levels determine what services best fit their needs
Humanistic and Existential critiques
- not based on a coherent theory of personality
- depending on the philosophy of the social worker, these ideas can be applied very differently by different works
