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PSYCH 1002 - Psych as a Natural Science > Chapter 3 - Biological Foundations of Bahaviour > Flashcards

Chapter 3 - Biological Foundations of Bahaviour Flashcards

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1
Q

Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system, made up of what three parts? describe them

A

Cell body/Soma
- contains biochemical structure needed to keep neuron alive
- nucleus carries genetic info that determines how cel will develop and function

Dendrites
- branch like emerging from cell body
- collects messages from other neurons, send them to cell body

Axon
- extends from cell body, conducting electrical impulses to other neurons, muscles or glands
- connects with dendrite branches from other neurons

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2
Q

How many neurons does a human have at birth?

A

100 billion, loosing 10,000 every day

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3
Q

What are Glial cells

A

They surround neurons and hold them in place
- made up of fatty tissue
- also manufacture nutrients from myelin sheath, absorb toxins and waste
- guide newly divided neuron to place during brain development

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4
Q

what does the blood-brain barrier do

A

prevents substances from entering brain

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5
Q

Describe the sate inside and outside of a neuron

A
  • neurons are surrounded by a positively charged liquid environment (Na+)
  • inside of the neuron is negative (Cl- and negative protein ions)
  • the resting potential across the membrane is -70mV
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6
Q

Describe events leading up to action potential

A

Action potential (nerve impulse) is a sudden reversal in neuron’s membrane voltage
- depolarization occurs; changes from -70mV to +40
- only occurs if the graded potential reaches action potential threshold, about -55mV (obeys all or none law)
- This change occurs due to ion channels, which open allowing a rushing in of Na+, making the neuron less negative (depolarization)
- Ion channels then close, K+ channels open and the positive ions go back to their respective positions outside the cell
- resting potential is restored

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7
Q

what is the refractory period

A

time period during which the membrane is not excitable and cannot discharge another
action potential
- occurs immediately after impulse passes
- limits rate at which action potential can be triggered (300 impulses/sec in humans)

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8
Q

What is the Myelin sheath and what is its purpose? Also was are the nodes of ranvier?

A
  • a fatty, whitish insulation layer derived from glial cells that covers axons
  • thins out at regular intervals, called the nodes of renvier
  • allow for higher conduction speeds along axon and faster transmission time
  • prevents loss of signals
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9
Q

what is a polarized neuron

A

a neuron at resting potential

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10
Q

what is a depolarized neuron

A

a neuron which sodium channels have opened and Na+ has rushed into the cell making it positive

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11
Q

what is hyperpolarization

A

a change in a cell’s membrane potential that makes it more negative

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12
Q

When neurons are classified by shape there are three kinds. which are…

A

Bipolar - an axon and one dendrite extending from the cell body toward opposite poles
Multipolar - multiple dendrites and a single axon.
Unipolar - neurons have one axon (usually the cell body on the side of the axon)

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13
Q

what is an excitatory neuron

A

Will depolarize postsynaptic membrane (EPSP) making it positive

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14
Q

What is an inhibitory neuron

A

Hyperpolarizes membrane (IPSP) making it negative

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15
Q

EPSP’s and IPSP’s are additive across space and time

what does this mean

A

if you were to get two epsp’s you could add them together to get the total effect of both of them
same with ipsps

or if you have an ipsp and epsp that are equal, they will cancel each other out

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16
Q

who discovered synaptic transmission

A

Otto Loewi

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17
Q

What is a synaptic cleft/ synapse

A
  • neurons don’t touch each other
  • tiny space between axon terminals to dendrite of the next neuron
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18
Q

Carrying messages through synapse to excite or inhibit the other neurons evolves what five steps

A

Synthesis - chemical molecules formed inside neuron

Storage - Molecules stored in synaptic vesicles

Release - Action potential causes vesicle to move to surface of terminal, molecules are releases into fluid-filled space

Binding - molecules cross the space and bind to receptor sites (large protein molecules embedded in the membrane)

Deactivation

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19
Q

whos experiment studied the flexor response and helped discover the synapse?

A

Sherrington
he suggested that the transmission from neuron to neuron was not electrical but rather chemical

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20
Q

what are neurotransmitters

A

the chemicals found in synaptic vesicles that travel across synapse during synaptic transmission

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21
Q

The binding of neurotransmitters to receptor sites causes two possible effects which are…

A

Excitation
- depolarizes next neuron
- makes post-synaptic neuron more likely to fire
- causes sodium to enter postsynaptic neuron

Inhibition
- hyperpolarizes (more negative),
- causes action potential to not occur
- changes the potential from -70mV to -72mV
this makes it more difficult to excite the neuron to the threshold and cause action potential, thus inhibiting neuron

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22
Q

the receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane will only allow for neurotransmitters what are the right _____ to bind/pass

A

shape

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23
Q

how are inhibiton and seizures linked

A

seizures are caused by a lack of inhibition

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24
Q

t or f? some neurons can be both expiatory and inhibitory

A

True! depends on the type of receptor

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25
Q

Different areas of the brain have more or less of certain types of receptor, why?

A
  • makes these areas more or less sensitive to specific neurotransmitters, and helps prevent “crosstalk” from
    other areas
  • allows neurotransmitters to have specific functions
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26
Q

Tell me about the neurotransmitter glutamate

A
  • excitatory
  • related to learning and memory
  • too much = seizures
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27
Q

Tell me about the neurotransmitter Acetylcholine

A

Excitatory

related to muscle movement and memory, behavioral inhibition

too little = Alzheimer’s, paralysis

too much = convulsions, all muscles will starts contracting

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28
Q

Tell me about the neurotransmitter dopamine (DA)

A

excitatory & inhibitory (mainly inhibitory)

related to reward, pleasure, voluntary movement, control of thoughts

too little = Parkinson’s (problems initiating and controlling movement)

too much = Schizophrenia (hallucinations, hearing voices)

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29
Q

tell me about the neurotransmitter GABA (Gamma-amino-butyric-acid)

A

inhibitory

found throughout brain - involved in most behavior especially motor control and lowering anxiety

too much = inhibits brain function (alcohol increases GABA release)

too little = tremors, lose motor control, anxiety

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30
Q

tell me about the neurotransmitter serotonin

A

inhibitory & excitatory

involved in mood, pleasure (eating, sleep, sex)

too little = depression

too much = insensitivity to pain (released in accidents or injury)

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31
Q

tell me about the neurotransmitter endorphins

A
  • inhibitory
  • inhibits pain
  • too little = hypersensitivity to pain
  • too much = insensitivity to pain
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32
Q

what’s an agonist

A

increases the activity of a neurotransmitter
- If its an inhibitory agonist it will make an inhibitory neurotransmitter more inhibitory

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33
Q

what’s an antagonist

A

decreases the activity of a neurotransmitter

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34
Q

what’s a neuromodulator

A

Increase or decrease sensitivity of neurons to whatever neurotransmitter(s) they receive

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35
Q

tell me about the neurotransmitter Norepinephrine (NE)

A

functions in excitatory and inhibitory systems

related to arousal, eating

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36
Q

drugs function by affecting neurotransmitters. They ____ or ______ amount of transmitter, which ______ or ______ receptor sites, terminates transmitter function

A

increase, decrease
stimulate, blocks

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37
Q

what does cocaine do

A

stimulates release of dopamine, prevents reuptake

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38
Q

what does curare to

A

stimulates the release of DA by releasing a molecule that looks like acetylcholine to bind to it’s receptor site, so ACh cannot bind there anymore
prevents reuptake

can cause paralysis

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39
Q

what does black widow venom do

A

Stimulates release of Ach and can cause cardiac arrest

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40
Q

What does the Botulism toxin do

A

blocks release of Ach,

covering presynaptic neuron, prevents release

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41
Q

what does nicotine do

A

stimulates receptor molecules “duplicating” effects of Ach, increased heart rate

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42
Q

what does caffeine do

A

blocks adenosine receptor sites

which is a neurotransmitter that makes you sleepy

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43
Q

what are the three different types of neurons that carry out functions

A

Sensory neurons – carry input messages from the sense organ to the spinal cord and brain (outside to in)

Motor neurons - transmit output impulses from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and organs (inside to out)

Interneurons - relay stations - take information from one or many neurons, amalgamate it and pass it on

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44
Q

the ______ consists of all the neurons in the brain/spinal cord

A

Central nervous system

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45
Q

the _______ is composed of all the neurons that connect the CNS with muscles/glands/sensory receptors

A

Peripheral Nervous system

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46
Q

what are sensory neurons

A

they carry input messages from the sense organs to the spinal cord

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47
Q

what are motor neurons

A

transmit output impulses from the brain and spinal cord to the body’s muscles and organs

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48
Q

what are interneurons

A

relay stations that take information from one or many neurons and put it together and pass it on

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49
Q

explain the somatic nervous system

A
  • consists of sensory neurons that transmit messages from eyes, ears, and other sensory receptors, and motor neurons that send messages from the brain/spinal cord to the muscles
  • control our VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS
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50
Q

explain the autonomic NS

A

-controls glands, muscles that form the heart, blood vessels, lining of stomach, and intestines.
- Concerned with INVOLUNTARY FUNCTIONS

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51
Q

the autonomic NS is split into two part which are

A

sympathetic NS and Parasympathetic NS

Sympathetic nervous system- a branch of the autonomic system that has an arousal function on the body’s internal organs, speeding up bodily processes and mobilizing the body

Parasympathetic nervous system- a branch of the autonomic system that slows down bodily processes to conserve energy and reduce arousal

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52
Q

whats homeostasis

A

a balance or constant internal state

53
Q

explain a reflex arc/ spinal reflexes

A

a stimulus that doesn’t need to go to the brain but bounces right off the spinal cord

a sensory neuron, connected to an interneuron, connected to a motor neuron

54
Q

the hindbrain has 2 parts. name them

A

Brian stem (medulla and pons)

Cerebellum

55
Q

the brain stem is

A

the connection between spine and brain, regulates basic survival functions of the body such as heart rate and breathing

56
Q

the medulla controls____, is located _____, and allows for _________________
(more an 1 word/blank)

A

controls vital functions including heartbeat and respiration located in the brain stem, and allows for functions to occur automatically

57
Q

the pons serve as

A

serves as a bridge carrying impulses between the higher and lower level of the nervous system

58
Q

explain the midbrain

A

involved in sensory and motor functions and inattention/states of consciousness

comprised of clusters of
sensory and motor neurons, as well as tracts that connect higher and lower
portions of nervous system

59
Q

what is reticular formation

A

Acts as a sentry, alerting higher centres of brain that messages are coming, and either blocking or
allowing them through

Without ret
icular stimulation of higher brain regions, sensory messages do not process despite the
impulse reaching the destination

Affects sleep, wakefulness, and attention

60
Q

explain the forebrain

A

comprised of two large cerebral hemispheres that wrap around the brain stem

involved in higher-order sensory, motor, and cognitive functions

Outer portion is covered by the cortex

61
Q

name (4) important regions of the forebrain we learnt about

A

thalamus
Basal Glanglia
Hypothalamus
Limbic system

62
Q

the brain weighs ___, and consumes ____% of our oxygen

A

3lbs, 20%

63
Q

explain the thalamus

A

Important sensory relay station

Organizes inputs from sense organs and routes them to appropriate brain area

64
Q

explain the Basal Ganglia

A

Critical for voluntary motor control

Plays important role in the deliberate and voluntary
control of movement

65
Q

explain the hypothalamus

A

Plays a major role in controlling many different basic biological drives (sexual behaviour,
temperature regulation, eating, drinking, aggression, etc.)

66
Q

explain the limbic system

A

Helps coordinate behaviours needed to satisfy motivational and emotional urges that arise in the
hypothalamus

67
Q

Inside the limbic system are the ______ and the _______

A

hippocampus and the amygdala

68
Q

explain the hippocampus

A

involved in forming and retrieving memories

69
Q

explain the amygdala

A

organizes emotional response patterns ( like fear )
Can produce emotional response without higher regions of brain realizing

70
Q

what is the cerebral cortex? how is it devided?

A

thick sheet of grey cells that form the outermost layer of the brain

divided into 4 lobes : frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal
each lobe is associated with particular sensory and motor functions

71
Q

what are the functions of the lobes

A

Frontal:
speech and skeletal motor functions

Parietal: body sensations

Occipital: visual area

Temporal: messages from the auditory system

72
Q

explain the motor cortex

A

Controls muscles involved in voluntary body movements

Amount of cortex devoted to each body part depends on complexity of movements of that part

73
Q

explain the sensory cortex

A

receives sensory input that allows for sensations (heat, touch, cold) as well as senses of balance and body movement

Amount of cortex devoted is dependent on sensitivity of part

74
Q

what two parts are dedicated to speech comprehension and production

A

Wernicke’s area - language comprehension

Boca’s area - necessary for normal speech production

75
Q

explain the association cortex

A

Found within all lobes of cerebral cortex

each association area is near its projection area (motor association areas next to motor projection areas

Involved in highest level of mental functions (perception, language and thought)

76
Q

how many neurons are there in the brain

A

about 100 billion

77
Q

where is the prefrontal cortex? what does it do?

A

in the frontal lobes (right behind forehead)
region responsible for mental abilities allowing people to direct behavior in an adaptive fashion
last thing to develop in brain

78
Q

explain contralateral control

A

control in the cortex is on the opposite side of the body

79
Q

what are some neural disorders due to the damage of the association cortex (hint; the highest level) (2)

A

Apraxia - inability to perform smooth actions

Agnosia - inability to interpret sensory information

80
Q

the neural bridge that acts as a major communication link between the two hemispheres is _______

A

the corpus callosum

81
Q

What is lateralization

A

refers to the localization of a function in one hemisphere or the other

For most people, left hemisphere involved in verbal abilities, speech, mathematical, and logical abilities

Right hemisphere involved in mental imagery, musical/artistic abilities, and ability to perceive and understand spatial relationships

Left: positive emotions, Right: negative emotions

82
Q

what is neural plasticity

A

refers to the ability of neurons to change in structure and function

83
Q

The brain is capable of greater plasticity _______ __ ____

A

earlier in life

84
Q

what is the endocrine system

A

The endocrine system is a complex network of glands and organs. It uses hormones to control and coordinate your body’s metabolism, energy level, reproduction, growth and development, and response to injury, stress, and mood.

85
Q

what are hormones

A

are chemical messengers that are secreted from its glands into the bloodstream.

Cells in the body have receptor molecules that respond to specific hormones from the endocrine glands

86
Q

function and location of the medulla

A
  • the bottom-most part of your brain.
    Its location means it’s where your brain and spinal cord connect, making it a key conduit for nerve signals to and from your body.
  • It also helps control vital processes like your heartbeat, breathing and blood pressure
87
Q

location and function of pons

A

lies just above medulla

a bridge carrying nerve impulses between higher and lower parts of the NS

88
Q

location and function of cerebellum

A
  • looks like a little brain growing out the back of your brain right above pons
  • primarily concerned with muscular movement and coordination but also plays role in certain types of learning and memory
  • motor movements initiated in higher brain regions but timing and coordination of them depend on cerebellum
89
Q

what does the reticular formation do? (in midbrain)

A

alerts higher centers of the brain that messages are coming either allowing them in or not

90
Q

function and location of the basal ganglia

A
  • in forebrain, enveloping the thalamus
  • motor control, as well as other roles such as motor learning, executive functions and behaviors, and emotions.
91
Q

function and location of the nucleus accumbens

A

neural interface between motivation and action, playing a key role on feeding, sexual, reward, stress-related, drug self-administration behaviors, etc.

92
Q

location and function of the corpus callosum

A

a neural bridge between the two hemispheres that acts as a major communication link and allows them to function as one unit

93
Q

explain the frontal lobe

A

speech productive, motor cortex, and involved in planning and problem solving

includes
- motor cortex
- broca’s area
- prefrontal cortex

94
Q

explain the parietal lobe

A

Somatosensory cortex- receives sensory input from various regions of the body

contains somatic sensory and Wernicke’s speech comprehension area

95
Q

explain occipital lobe

dorsal side?
ventral side?

A

contains primary visual sensory area

Dorsal side- sends info about orientation and movement of objects to the parietal lobe

Ventral side- sends info about recognition to the temporal lobe

96
Q

explain the temporal lobe

A

major site of auditory input to the brain

includes Wernicke’s area- involved in speech comprehension

97
Q

explain the association cortex

A

involve in highest levels of mental functions including perception language and thought

98
Q

what is apraxia

A

inability to perform smooth motor movements

99
Q

explain agnosia

A

inability to interpret sensory information

100
Q

explain aphasia and the two types

A

partial or total loss of the ability to communicate using language

Broca’s aphasia- difficulty in creating lauguage

Wernicke’s aphasia- difficulty in understanding launguage

101
Q

________ _________ is caused by stroke to the right hemisphere, parietal and temporal lobes affected, ignore contralateral (opposite side)

A

Hemispatial neglect

102
Q

explain what a split brain operation is

A

person suffering from severe epilepsy, corpus callosum severed in half to prevent seizures from spreading across hemispheres

103
Q

when a neuron fires, how does one code for intensity?

A

Most common way - intensity is directly proportional to frequency of firing - the more intense the stimulus the more often a neuron will fire

but also:

  • neurons have different thresholds, therefore if a neuron has a higher threshold per say and the neuron fires, we know the stimulus must be more intense
  • a stronger stimulus affects more neurons, you could keep track of how many fire to tell you how strong the stimulus is
104
Q

what could limit the frequency of firing of a neuron

A

the absolute refractory period

the membrane is not excitable and cannot generate another action potential

105
Q

Sherrington’s experiment was important in explaining the synapse.

explain it

A

he was trying to measure the speed of a flexion response

he found that the neural impulse travels at about 200 feet/sec
figured if the reflex arc is 2ft long, the latency should be 10 milliseconds

its not - its 100 milliseconds, so its not an electrical circuit where everything touches

he thus suggested that the communication was not electrical, rather chemical which helped discover the synapse

106
Q

explain the process of reuptake in the synapse

A

when not all neurotransmitters are transferred to the postsynaptic neuron, the rest are reabsorbed into the presynaptic axon terminal in the process of reuptake

any left over in the synapse are then neutralized (by something like monoamine oxidase)

107
Q

a neurotransmitter locks into a receptor site on a postsynaptic membrane - sodium channels then open

what is happening

A

EPSP

An excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) occurs when sodium channels open in response to a stimulus. The electrochemical gradient drives sodium to rush into the cell. When sodium brings its positive charge into the cell, the cell’s membrane potential becomes more positive, or depolarizes.

108
Q

a potassium channel opens at the postsynaptic membrane, which hyperpolarizes the cell, makes it more negative

what is this called

A

inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP).

109
Q

what does constant inhibition do to a neuron

A

raises the threshold of firing

110
Q

t or f

a single neuron can synapse with many others

A

TRUE

it can get up to tens of thousands

111
Q

neuron A fires, depolarizing neuron A. But it is not strong enough to create an action potential (bet -70 and -50)

it fires multiple times, is it able to create action potential?

A

yes! because graded potentials are additive across time and space

112
Q

neuron A id excitatory, neuron B is inhibitory

they both fire at the same time on neuron C

what is likely to happen to C

A

the epsp from neuron A cancels out the IPSP from neuron B

nothing happens

113
Q

Neuron A is inhibitory, it fires on neuron B repeatedly

what will likely happen to neuron B

A

hyperpolarization will occur, the voltage will drop below -70

thus raising the threshold through constant inhibition

114
Q

the thalamus, midbrain, pons and medulla are all a part of the _____ ______

A

old brain

115
Q

what are the three characteristics of the projection areas in the brain

A

topographical representation - map of each body part, generally moving from the bottom of the body to the top

contralateral control - left hemisphere controls right side, vice versa

function assignment of space - more cortical space given to important features

116
Q

what is an angiogram

A

basically an x-ray of the brain, but the area of interest is dyed to see it better

117
Q

what is a CAT scan

A

taking an x-ray of brain from a 360 degree rotation, then patching each scan together

118
Q

What is a PET scan

A

allows for us to see brain activity

done by injecting radioactive glucose into the brain, and the areas that are functioning will draw more sugar than others will light up (in red, yellow and white)

119
Q

what is an mri?

A

expose the brain to a strong electromagnetic field

120
Q

what is best, most accurate brain scan which gives you imagery of the functions of the brain

A

fmri

121
Q

what does the association area ?

A

integrates and interprets information

takes sensory information and makes sense of it

122
Q

eastyn jumps off the roof of aceb, she then suffers brain damage and has trouble being able to perfrom smooth actions,

she can perform each action individually but cannot sting her movements together smoothly

what condition does she have

A

apraxia

123
Q

what will an individual with agnosia struggle to do

A

they struggle to interpret sensory information

124
Q

eastyn suffers a stroke, she then has trouble being able to produce speech.

what condition does she have

A

brocas aphasia

125
Q

eastyn gets hit by a bus, she then has trouble being able to understand Mireille when she speaks

what condition does she have

A

Wernicke’s aphasia

126
Q

a horse steps on eastyns head and gives her brain damage, she then tries to describe the accident, can speak coherently but the sentences make so sense

what condition does she have

A

wernickes aphasia

127
Q

the ______ hemisphere is often referred to as the verbal hemisphere, the _____ hemisphere is often referred to a the nonverbal hemisphere (for right handed individuals)

A

left - verbal
right - nonverbal

128
Q

eastyn goes through brain surgery, she has her corpus callosum cut and now has a split brain.

why tf would she do that

A

she has a neural disorder (such as epilepsy) and is trying to avoid it from spreading to the other hemisphere

129
Q

is eastyn is a right handed split brain patient and something is projected into her left visual field, will she see it?

A

yes! but will be unable to see anything in her right visual field

PSYCH 1002 - Psych as a Natural Science (8 decks)

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