Chapter 3 Flashcards
1
Q
The sodium-potassium pump removes ____ Na+ ions for every _____ K+ ions
A
3; 2
2
Q
_____ are responsible for myelination, the “white matter” in the brain.
A
Ogliodendrocytes
3
Q
This type of neuron is present in the cerebellum. They have a large number of dendritic branches in a single plane.
A
Purkinje cells
4
Q
A
Purkinje cells
5
Q
A
Somatic Reflex Arc
6
Q
Sherrington observed three important points about reflexes: • Reflexes are _____than conduction along an axon
A
slower
7
Q
Sherrington observed three important points about reflexes: Several weak stimuli presented at slightly different times or slightly different locations produces a _____than a single stimulus does
A
stronger reflex
8
Q
Sherrington observed three important points about reflexes:
• As one set of muscles relaxes, another set becomes _____
A
excited
9
Q
Sherrington observed a difference in the _____in a reflex arc from previously measured action potentials
A
speed of conduction
10
Q
Sherrignton believed the difference in conduction speed must be accounted for by the time it took for communication ____
A
between neurons
11
Q
Speed of neurons
A
40 m/sec
12
Q
A
13
Q
Presnyaptic neuron
A
axon terminal
14
Q
Axon terminal does?
A
synthesizes acetylcholine
15
Q
What do axon terminals contain?
A
vessicles which contain neurotransmitters
16
Q
Action potential opens up calcium channels releasing neurotransmitters. True or False?
A
True
17
Q
Synaptic cleft
A
where the neurotransmitters released into the synaptic space from axon terminals
18
Q
Neurotransmitters bind to receptors and can release what two types of reactions?
A
excititory or inhibitory
19
Q
Reuptake of neurotransmitter occus by?
A
transporter protein
20
Q
Prosynaptic cell releases _____slow further release from the presynaptic cell
A
retrograde transmitters
21
Q
_____responds to retrograde transmitter or the presynaptic cell’s own transmitter
A
negative feedback
22
Q
Repeated stimuli can have a cumulative effect and can produce a nerve impulse when a single stimuli is too weak
A
temporal summation
23
Q
Presynaptic neuron depolarizes but not enough to ____
A
create its own action potential
24
Q
neuron that delivers the synaptic transmission
A
Presynaptic neuron
25
neuron that receives the message
Postsynaptic neuron
26
graded potential that decays over time and space
Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
27
The cumulative effect of EPSPs are the basis for ___ and
temporal and spatial summation
28
Small repeated signals over time during temporal summation will eventually \_\_\_\_
decay
29
Sherrington also noticed that several small stimuli on a similar location produced a \_\_\_when a single stimuli did not
reflex
30
Synaptic input from several locations can have a cumulative effect and trigger a nerve impulse
spatial summation
31
Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential -Left
Inhibitory-Post Synaptic Potential - Right
32
Action Potential
33
Neurotransmitters can bind to receptors to open \_\_\_or \_\_\_channels.
Na+ or K+
34
Signals coming into the neuron from multiple other neurons at approximately the same time.
Spatial Summation
35
During which type of summation does the following occur: Over time, a single signal will fade, and the resting potential will return to normal.
Spatial Summation
36
Spatial Summation
37
\_\_\_\_\_\_summation is critical to brain functioning
Spatial
38
Each neuron receives many incoming \_\_\_\_that frequently produce synchronized responses by \_\_\_\_cells
axons
astrocytes
39
Temporal summation and spatial summation ordinarily occur \_\_\_\_
together
40
The \_\_\_\_\_\_of axons influences the results
order of a series
41
Which produces greater polarization?
Left
42
Sherrington also noticed that during the reflex that occurred, the leg of a dog that was pinched \_\_\_\_while the other three legs were \_\_\_
retracted
extended
43
Sherrinton suggested that an \_\_\_\_in the spinal cord sent an \_\_\_\_\_to the flexor muscles of one leg and an \_\_\_\_\_was sent to the other three legs
interneuron
excitatory message
inhibitory message
44
The \_\_\_\_from a stimulus can produces multiple effects
signal
45
\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_draw a limb toward the body;
\_\_\_\_ ____ move the limb away
Flexor muscles
Extensor muscles
46
What led Sherrington to the idea of inhibitory postsynaptic potential or the temporary hyperpolarization of a membrane?
When he obserbed that the leg of a dog that was pinched retracted while the other three legs were extended
47
\_\_\_\_\_\_occurs when synaptic input selectively opens the gates for positively charged potassium ions to leave the cell or negatively charged \_\_\_\_to enter the cells. Serves as an active “brake” that suppresses \_\_\_\_
IPSP
chloride ions
excitation
48
Sherrington’s Inference: IPSPs
49
Green represents \_\_\_\_and red \_\_\_\_
EPSP
IPSP
50
Sherrington assumed that synapses produce ___ and ___ responses
on
off
51
Synapses vary enormously in their \_\_\_\_of effects
duration
52
The effect of two synapses at the same time can be\_\_\_\_ than double the effect of either one, or\_\_\_than double
more
less
53
What is the correct configuration of neurons in a reflex arc?
Sensory
Interneuron
motor
54
These make a neuron more likely to fire?
EPSPs
55
A presynaptic neuron repeatedly sends an EPSP to the post synaptic neuron. One signal is not enough to make it fire. What is happening?
Temporal summation
56
• Consider cell configurations:
Either of the two neurons can cause a 3rd to \_\_\_
Only two together can cause a 3rd to \_\_\_.
Only two together can cause a 3rd to fire, AND
a \_\_\_neuron can inhibit the firing of the 3rd.
fire.
fire
4th
57
The spontaneous firing rate refers to the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_despite synaptic input
periodic production of action potentials
58
EPSPs \_\_\_\_the number of action potentials above the spontaneous firing rate
increase
59
IPSPs \_\_\_\_the number of action potentials below the spontaneous firing rate
decrease
60
German physiologist Otto Loewi was the first to convincingly demonstrate that communication across the synapse occurs via\_\_\_\_\_
chemical means
61
Neurotransmitters are \_\_\_\_that travel across the synapse and allow communication between neurons
chemicals
62
\_\_\_\_\_transmission predominates throughout the nervous system
Chemical
63
The neuron synthesizes \_\_\_that serve as neurotransmitters
chemicals
64
Action potentials travel down the \_\_\_\_
axon
65
Released molecules diffuse across the \_\_\_\_, attach to \_\_\_\_, and alter the activity of the postsynaptic neuron
cleft
receptors
66
The neurotransmitter molecules \_\_\_\_from their receptors
separate
67
The neurotransmitters are taken back into the \_\_\_\_\_for recycling or diffuse away
presynaptic neuron
68
The postsynaptic cell may send \_\_\_\_messages to slow the release of further neurotransmitters by \_\_\_\_cells
reverse
presynaptic
69
What does the picture demonstrate?
The Sequence of Chemical Events at the Synapse
70
What are the major categories of neurotransmitters?
Amino acids
Monoamines
Acetylcholine
Neuropeptides
Purines
Gases
71
Neurons synthesize neurotransmitters and other chemicals from substances provided by the \_\_\_\_
diet
72
Acetylcholine synthesized from choline found in \_\_\_, ___ & \_\_\_\_
milk
eggs
nuts
73
Tryptophan serves as a precursor for \_\_\_\_
What makes us sleepy ie: turkey. Not enough to make sleepy.
serotonin
74
Catecholimines contain a \_\_\_group and an \_\_\_group which are: \_\_\_\_\_, \_\_\_, and \_\_\_\_)
catechol
amine
epinephrine
norepinephrine
dopamine
75
Tiny spherical packets located in the presynaptic terminal where neurotransmitters are held for release
Vesicles
76
MAO
monoamine oxidase
a chemical that breaks down excess levels of some neurotransmitters
77
What refers to the excretion of the neurotransmitter from the presynaptic terminal into the synaptic cleft?
Triggered by an\_\_\_\_ arriving from the axon
Exocytosis
action potential
78
Which is a monoamine?
GABA
Acetylcholine
Nitric Oxide
Serotonin
serotonin
79
Which is an amino acid?
GABA
Acetylcholine
Nitric Oxide
Serotonin
GABA
80
Which is faster in the nervous system: electrical or chemical signaling?
electrical
81
SSRI
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
82
MAOIs lead to a build up of \_\_\_\_
monoamines
83
SSRIs lead to excess serotonin in the \_\_\_\_\_
synaptic cleft
84
Subjects taking both Fluoxetine (Prozac) and an MAOI exhibit which symptoms?
Serotonergic Syndrome
Psychological: mental status changes, such as hypomania and confusion
Physical: myoclonus, hypertension, tremor, and diarrhea
85
Transmission across the synaptic cleft by a neurotransmitter takes fewer than \_\_\_\_
.01 microseconds
86
Neurons may also respond to more types of neurotransmitters than they \_\_\_\_
release
87
Electron micrograph showing a synapse from the cerebellum of a mouse
Round structures are vessicles that contain neurotransmitters
88
Electron micrograph showing axon terminals onto the soma of a neuron
89
The effect of a neurotransmitter depends on its \_\_\_\_on the postsynaptic cell
receptor
90
An \_\_\_\_\_\_\_refers to when a neurotransmitter attaches to receptors and immediately opens ion channels and are very fast
ionotropic effect
91
Transmitter-gated or ligand-gated channels are channels controlled by a \_\_\_\_\_
neurotransmitter
92
Most ionotropic effects rely on ___ or ___ which are inhibitory and excititory.
glutamate or GABA
93
94
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_occur when neurotransmitters attach to a receptor and initiates a sequence of slower and longer lasting metabolic reactions
Metabotropic effects
95
Metabotropic synapses use many neurotransmitters such as \_\_\_, \_\_\_\_, \_\_\_\_and sometimes glutamate and \_\_\_
dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin
GABA
96
When neurotransmitters attach to a metabotropic receptor, it \_\_\_the receptor protein that goes through the membrane of the cell. ____ allows a portion of the protein inside the neuron to react with other molecules
bends
Bending
97
Metabotropic events include such behaviors as \_\_\_, ___ & \_\_\_
taste, smell, and pain
98
Sequence of events at a metabotropic synapse, using a second messenger within the postsynaptic neuron
G protein activates a gene in nucleus that opens or closes on ion channel
99
The portion inside the neuron activates a G-protein: one that is coupled to \_\_\_\_\_\_, an energy storing molecule
guanosine triphosphate (GTP)
100
G-protein increases the concentration of a “\_\_\_ messenger”
second
101
The second messenger communicates to areas within the cell. May ___ or \_\_\_ion channels, alter production of activating \_\_\_\_, or activate \_\_\_\_
open or close
proteins
chromosomes
102
Neuropeptides are often called \_\_\_\_\_
Release requires repeated \_\_\_\_
Released peptides trigger other neurons to release \_\_\_\_neuropeptide
Diffuse widely and affect many neurons via \_\_\_\_\_\_
neuromodulators
stimulation
same
metabotropic receptors
103
General rule: a neuron delivers neuropeptides that \_\_\_\_to receptors throughout a wide area, but delivers other transmitters in \_\_\_\_amounts directly adjacent to their receptors
Exception:\_\_\_\_\_: a neuron shaped like a glia cell that releases \_\_\_\_amounts of GABA all at once
diffuse
small
Neurogliaform cell
huge
104
A \_\_\_\_\_is a chemical secreted by a gland or other cells that is transported to other organs by the blood where it alters activity
hormone
105
\_\_\_\_\_\_are responsible for the production of hormones
Endocrine glands
106
Hormones are important for triggering \_\_\_\_\_changes in \_\_\_\_parts of the body
long-lasting
multiple
107
Protein hormones and peptide hormones are composed of \_\_\_\_and attach to membrane receptors where they activate \_\_\_\_messenger systems
chains of amino acids
second
108
Hormones secreted by the \_\_\_\_can control the release of other hormones
brain
109
Location of major endocrine glands
110
The pituitary gland is attached to the \_\_\_\_\_and consists of two distinct glands that each release a different set of hormones:
\_\_\_\_\_\_: composed of glandular tissue and synthesizes six hormones
\_\_\_\_\_: composed of neural tissue and can be considered an extension of the hypothalamus
hypothalamus
Anterior pituitary
Posterior pituitary
111
112
Neurons in the hypothalamus synthesize the hormones ___ and \_\_\_\_, which migrate down axons to the \_\_\_\_\_\_. Also known as antidiuretic hormones.
The hypothalamus secretes releasing hormones. Flow through the blood and stimulate the\_\_\_\_to release a number of other hormones
oxytocin and vasopressin
posterior pituitary
posterior pituitary
113
Hypothalamus secretes releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones that control anterior pituitary gland. Also oxytocin and vasopressin which travel to posterior pituitary
114
The hypothalamus maintains a fairly constant circulating level of hormones through a \_\_\_\_\_\_system
Example: \_\_\_\_
negativefeedback
TSH-releasing hormone
115
116
The posterior pituary gland can be considered an extension of the
Hypothalamus
located below the thalamus in the limbic ventral region
Regulates emotions, fight or flight, sex
117
Which of these receptor types causes a more rapid effect?
Ionotropic
118
Ionotropic effects most likely rely on:
GABA
119
Neurotransmitters released into the synapse do not remain and are subject to either ____ or \_\_\_
inactivation or reuptake
120
refers to when the presynaptic neuron takes up most of the neurotransmitter molecules intact and reuses them
Reuptake
121
Transporters are special membrane proteins that facilitate\_\_\_\_
Example:\_\_\_\_\_ is taken back up into the presynaptic terminal
reuptake
serotonin
122
What are examples of inactivation and reuptake?
Acetylcholine is broken down by acetylcholinesterase into acetate and choline
Excess dopamine is converted into inactive chemicals
123
Enzymes that convert the excess into inactive chemicals
COMT
124
In what 2 ways is negative feedback accomplished in the brain?
Autoreceptors
Postsynaptic neurons
125
Receptors that detect the amount of transmitter released and inhibit further synthesis and release
Autoreceptors
126
Respond to stimulation by releasing chemicals that travel back to the presynaptic terminal where they inhibit further release
Postsynaptic neurons
127
True or False?
A few special-purpose synapses operate electrically. Faster than all chemical transmissions
True
128
The direct contact of the membrane of one neuron with the membrane of another
Gap junction
129
True or False?
## Footnote
In a gap junction depolarization occurs in both cells, resulting in the two neurons acting as if they were one.
True
130
A gap junction for an electrical synapse
131
True or False?
Drugs work by mimicking our own neurochemistry
True
132
In what 2 ways do drugs alter various stages of synaptic processing?
Antagonist
Agonist
133
A drug that blocks a neurotransmitter
Antagonist
Agonist
134
Effects of drugs at dopamine synapse
135
Addictive substances affect dopamine and norepinephrine synapses.
True or false?
True
136
What other behaviors release dopamine besides drugs?
sexual excitement, gambling, and video games
137
People with major depression show a less than normal response in the nucleus accumbens
True or false
True
138
Who suggested an important distinction be made between “liking” and “wanting” behaviors?
Berridge and Robinson (1998)
139
Small parts of the\_\_\_\_ respond to pleasure (liking)
nucleus accumbens
140
Larger parts of _____ respond to motivation (wanting)
nucleus accumbens
141
People addicted to drugs are highly motivated to get them even if they no longer provide pleasure
True of False
True
142
143
Drugs are categorized according to their predominant action or effect upon behavior
True or False
True
144
Stimulant drugs increase excitement, alertness, motor activity, and elevate mood
True or False
True
145
What kind of drugs are the following:
amphetamines, cocaine, methylphenidate (Ritalin), MDMA (Ecstasy), and nicotine
stimulants
146
Amphetamine and cocaine inhibit the \_\_\_\_\_transporter
dopamine
147
Amphetamine and cocaine stimulate dopamine synapses by increasing the release of dopamine from the \_\_\_\_\_
presynaptic terminal
148
Methylphenidate (Ritalin) also blocks the reuptake of \_\_\_\_\_but in a more gradual and more controlled rate
dopamine
149
What is the brand name for Methylphenidate?
Ritalin
150
What is often prescribed for people with ADD?
Methylphenidate (Ritalin)
151
Research has found inconclusive results on whether Ritalin use in childhood makes one more likely to abuse drugs as an adult
True or False
True
152
Nicotine is the active ingredient in tobacco
True or False
True
153
Nicotine stimulates one type of ____ receptor known as the nicotinic receptor
acetylcholine receptor
154
Nicotinic receptors are abundant in the nucleus accumbens and facilitate \_\_\_\_release
dopamine
155
Repeated exposure to nicotine makes the drug more rewarding, but it makes every other stimulus \_\_\_\_rewarding
less
156
Opiate drugs are those that are derived from (or similar to those derived from) the \_\_\_\_\_
opium poppy
157
Opiates decrease sensitivity to \_\_\_and increase relaxation by attaching to \_\_\_\_receptors in the brain
pain
endorphin
158
The following are examples of what kind of drug: morphine, heroin, methadone
Opiate drugs
159
The \_\_\_\_produces peptides called endorphins
brain
160
Endorphin synapses may contribute to certain kinds of reinforcement by inhibiting the release of \_\_\_indirectly
GABA
161
Inhibiting GABA indirectly releases \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
dopamine
162
Endorphins also have \_\_\_\_\_\_effects independent of dopamine
reinforcing
163
THC
Tetrahydocannabinol
164
Active ingredient in marijuana
Tetrahydocannabinol (THC)
165
THC attaches to cannabinoid receptors throughout the brain but especially the\_\_\_, \_\_\_,\_\_\_, and\_\_\_
\_\_\_ and \_\_\_are the endogenous chemicals that attach to these receptors
cerebral cortex, cerebellum, basal ganglia, and hippocampus.
Anandamide and 2-AG
166
The location of the receptors in the brain may account for the subjective effects of loss of time, an intensification of sensory experience, and possibly memory impairment . The ____ receptors are located on the \_\_\_\_\_neuron and inhibit the release of ____ and \_\_\_\_• Research with rats has shown the phenomenon of “time passing more slowly
cannabinoid
presynaptic
glutamate and GABA
167
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_drugs cause distorted perception.
Hallucinogenic
168
Many \_\_\_\_\_drugs resemble serotonin in their molecular shape
hallucinogenic
169
Hallucinogenic drugs stimulate \_\_\_\_\_type 2A receptors (5-HT2A) at inappropriate times or for longer duration than usual thus causing their subjective effect
serotonin
170
Full name for LSD
Lysergic acid diethylamide
171
Full name for MDMA
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine
172
stimulant at small dosages but a hallucinogen at larger dosages
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or “ecstasy”
173
Indication that long-term use of hallucinogenic drugs is associated with impaired memory and learning, and loss of \_\_\_\_receptors
serotonin
174
What type of drugs are the following:
LSD, MDMA
hallucinogen
175
176
177
Alcohol is a drug that has a long historical use and is used widely throughout the world. In moderate amounts, alcohol is associated with \_\_\_\_• In greater amounts it impairs judgment and damages the \_\_\_\_and other organs, and ultimately can ruin lives. Alcoholism/alcohol dependence is the habitual use of alcohol despite medical or social harm
relaxation
liver
178
Alcohol has a number of diverse physiological effects, including:
Enhanced response by the \_\_\_\_receptor.
Blockage of \_\_\_\_receptors.
Increased \_\_\_\_\_activity
GABA
glutamate
dopamine
179
Strong influence of\_\_\_\_ on alcoholism.
genetics
180
The genetic basis for \_\_\_\_-onset alcoholism is stronger than for \_\_\_-onset, especially in \_\_\_
early
late
men
181
Researchers distinguish between two types of alcoholism
Type I/Type A
Type II/Type B
182
The following characteristics are from which type of alcoholism:
## Footnote
Later onset (usually after 25)
Gradual onset
Fewer genetic relatives with alcoholism
Equal quantity between men and women
Type I/Type A
183
The following characteristics are from which type of alcoholism:
## Footnote
Earlier onset (usually before 25)
More rapid onset
More genetic relatives with alcoholism
Men outnumber women
Type II/Type B
184
Genes influence the likelihood of alcoholism in many ways, such as:
\_\_\_\_\_receptor are more sensitive and need more alcohol to provide reinforcement
More active COMT \_\_\_\_\_reinforcement and is linked to impulsivity
Responses to stress and anxiety-inducing experiences ____ exposure to alcohol
Long form type 4
decreases
Prenatal
185
Research on sons of alcoholic fathers shows:
Less average \_\_\_\_\_after one drink
Stress \_\_\_\_more than for the average person
Smaller than normal \_\_\_\_\_
intoxication
decreases
amygdala
186
Various factors contribute to continued substance abuse:
\_\_\_\_develops
Cravings in response to\_\_\_\_
Brain reorganization: \_\_\_\_and\_\_\_\_
Tolerance
cues
nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex
187
Medications used to combat alcoholism include
Antabuse
Revia (naloxone)
188
Antabuse (disulfiram) works by antagonizing the effects of \_\_\_\_\_
acetaldehyde dehydrogenase
189
After alcohol consumption, enzymes in the liver metabolize it into a poisonous substance called \_\_\_\_\_
acetaldehyde
190
Acetaldehyde is converted by the enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase into \_\_\_\_\_, a chemical that the body can use as a source of energy. Accumulation of acetaldehyde results in \_\_\_\_
acetic acid
sickness
191
\_\_\_\_\_ is an opiate similar to heroin and morphine but is absorbed and metabolized slowly. Perceived to be less harmful than other drugs. Assumed to satisfy cravings associated with previous drug use
Methadone
192
\_\_\_\_\_is similar to morphine but can be taken three times a week rather than daily
Levomethadyl acetate (LAAM)
193
cell bodies are located in basil forebrain and spread throughout the cortex
Acetylcholine
194
195
All receptors are \_\_\_\_
metabotropic
196
Chlorpromazine given for schizophrenia blocks \_\_\_\_\_receptors which reduces hallucinations and paranoia
D2
197
198
What are the three Dopaminergic Subsystems?
Nigrostriatal subsystem
Mesolimbic subsystem
Mesocortical subsystem
199
Which Dopaminergic system is the following:
substantia nigra project to neostriatum.
Motor control, associated with Parkinsons
Nigrostriatal subsystem
200
Which Dopaminergic system is the following:
## Footnote
ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens and ventral portions of striatum, amygdala, hippocampus, PFC
Reward
Mesolimbic subsystem
201
Which Dopaminergic system is the following:
ventral tegmental area to motor cotrex, premotor cortex, PFC.
Working memory
Mesocortical subsystem
202
Which system describes the following:
Originates in locus coerleus, projects to thalamus, hypothalamus, cortex (PFC)
Receptors alpha1, alpha2, beta1, beta2,
Metabotropic, coupled to G proteins
Excitatory and inhibitory effects
Tricyclic drugs and catecholamine uptake, increases neuronal signal
Used to treat ADHD
Sleep, Attention, Long term memory
Noradrenergic System
203
204
Which system is described:
Serotonin (5-HT)
10 receptors, 9 of which are metabotropic
Rephe nuclei of midbrain, pons, and medulla, project to hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala in limbic system, though diverse projection to other areas
Sleep, mood (depression), forming new long term memories
Serotonergic System
205
206
Neurotransmitters can bind to receptors to open Na+ or K+ channels. Which would cause an IPSP?
Potassium channels
207
The following are examples of:
Glutamate, GABA, glycine, aspartate et al
Amino Acids
208
Glutamate & GABA are both exhibitory and inhibitory. True or False
True
209
210
211
212
Of the two: LSD, MDMA/ecstacy, which is addictive and dangerous?
MDMA/ecstacy
