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VMT 216 - Anatomy & Physiology > Chapter 3&4 - Anatomy & Physiology of the Cell > Flashcards

Chapter 3&4 - Anatomy & Physiology of the Cell Flashcards

1
Q

what is the earliest form of cells?

A

prokaryotes

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2
Q

What is special about eukaryotic cells?

A

they make up all multicellular organisms, they have a defined nucleus which holds DNA

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3
Q

Are larger or smaller cells more efficient?

A

smaller cells; they have fewer nutrient requirements

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4
Q

What does having multiple nuclei allow?

A

more activity within the cell
ex: cardiac muscle cells have two or more nuclei

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5
Q

What are the three essential structures of mammalian cells?

A

cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus

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6
Q

What is another name for the cell membrane?

A

plasmalemma

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7
Q

What is the cell membrane?

A

the flexible barrier that separates the cytoplasm from external environments.

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8
Q

what is the cell membrane made up of?

A

two rows of phospholipid bilayers

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9
Q

What do the phospholipid bilayers allow?

A

passive movement of lipid-soluble molecules across the membrane
ex: oxygen or CO2

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10
Q

what do the integral proteins do?

A

act as pores to allow free water movement;
contain peripheral proteins

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11
Q

what do peripheral proteins do?

A

act as enzymes; change the cell’s shape

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12
Q

where do internal peripheral proteins attach?

A

to the cytoskeleton inside the cell

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13
Q

where do external peripheral proteins attach?

A

to glycoproteins and glycolipids

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14
Q

What is on the surface of the cell membrane?

A

molecules that form glycocalyx (glycolipids and glycoproteins)
cell adhesion molecules
membrane receptors

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15
Q

what does contact signaling do?

A

it allows cells to recognize each other

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16
Q

what does chemical signaling do?

A

it allows for functions to be turned on and off

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17
Q

What do caveolae do?

A

they are pockets in the membrane that act as sensors

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18
Q

what do flagella do?

A

flagella are a long whip-like structures used to move the cell around

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19
Q

What do cilia do?

A

cilia are short spikes used to increase surface area as well as push things along the surface of the cell

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20
Q

what is the cytoplasm?

A

a gel-like substance inside the cell membrane that contains the organelles

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21
Q

what is the cytoplasm made up of?

A

cytosol, cytoskeleton, organelles

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22
Q

what is cytosol

A

the fluid of the cytoplasm

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23
Q

what is the cytoskeleton?

A

3D frame and support structure; responsible for cell division and muscle function

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24
Q

What are the organelles?

A

tiny little organs within the cell

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25
Q

what is the mitochondria

A

the organelle that makes ATP and is where respiration takes place. It contains their own DNA/RNA

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26
Q

what are the ribosomes?

A

tiny organelles that synthesize proteins, which contain a special type of RNA

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27
Q

Who makes proteins for the plasmalemma?

A

Rough ER

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28
Q

who makes proteins for intracellular use?

A

the cytoskeleton

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29
Q

How do organelles make their own proteins?

A

they copy the protein structure from DNA

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30
Q

What does the Rough ER do?

A

modify proteins from ribosomes

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31
Q

Where do modified proteins move after the rough ER?

A

into vesicles for the Golgi Apparatus

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32
Q

What does rough ER contain?

A

ribosomes

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32
Q

What does smooth ER do?

A

synthesis and storage of lipids

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33
Q

What does the golgi apparatus do?

A

receives packages from ER and modifies proteins into glycoproteins

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34
Q

What does the golgi apparatus do with glycoproteins?

A

ships them across the cell

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35
Q

what do lysosomes do?

A

contain enzymes for breaking down damaged molecules throughout the cytoplasm

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36
Q

What is the nucleus?

A

the part of the cell that contains heredity information and controls cellular processes

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37
Q

what are the four parts of the nucleus?

A

nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, chromatin, nucleoli

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38
Q

What molecule makes up 60% of an animal’s body?

A

water

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39
Q

what is metabolic water

A

water made within the body via cellular processes

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40
Q

what are the two types of water loses

A

insensible and sensible water loss

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41
Q

what is insensible water loss?

A

water loss that cannot be easily measured
ex: breathing, passively from skin

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42
Q

what is sensible water loss?

A

water loss able to be measured
ex: urine, feces, vomiting, diarrhea, sweating

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43
Q

What type of fluid makes up 2/3 of the body’s fluids?

A

intracellular fluids

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44
Q

how are intracellular fluid maintained?

A

by cell membranes

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45
Q

What type of fluid makes up 1/3 of the body’s fluids?

A

extracellular fluids

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46
Q

where is intravascular fluid found?

A

within blood &lymph vessels (plasma)

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47
Q

where is interstitial fluid found?

A

outside of cells within the tissues; surrounding the cell

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48
Q

(T/F) Fluid can be shifted between intracellular and extracellular compartments

A

True

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49
Q

what is the most abundant solute found in the body?

A

electrolytes

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50
Q

what are cations

A

positively charged ions

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51
Q

what are anions?

A

negatively charged ions

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52
Q

what are the main extracellular ions?

A

sodium and chloride

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53
Q

what are the main intracellular ions?

A

potassium and hydrogen

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54
Q

What do acids release?

A

H+ ; known as proton donators

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55
Q

what do bases release?

A

OH- ; known as proton receivers

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56
Q

what occurs when acids and bases dissociate?

A

they become electrolytes

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57
Q

What happens when there is more H+ in a solution?

A

the greater the acidity and lower the pH in the solution

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58
Q

what happens when theres more OH- in a solution?

A

the greater the alkalinity and the higher the pH

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59
Q

What is the pH of water

A

7

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60
Q

what is the pH of blood

A

7.4

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61
Q

what happens when an animal gets sick?

A

there is a change in the electrolyte concentrations, altering the pH levels dangerously

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62
Q

what is osmolality

A

the measure of solute concentration in a fluid

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63
Q

what is the osmolality level of serum?

A

278-300 mOsmol / kg

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64
Q

what hormone controls serum osmolality in mammals?

A

antidiurectic hormone (ADH)

65
Q

what has the same osmolality as normal blood?

A

isotonic fluids

66
Q

what has a lower osmolality than normal blood?

A

hypotonic fluids

67
Q

what has a higher osmolality than normal blood?

A

hypertonic fluids

68
Q

in which fluid do cells function optimally?

A

isotonic extracellular fluids

69
Q

what can occur if the extracellular fluid changes osmolality?

A

the cell can change shape or even rupture

70
Q

what can force the movement of body fluids from one compartment to another?

A

hydration status of a patient

71
Q

What are types of fluid products?

A

crystalloids and colloids

72
Q

what are crystalloids for?

A

used for rehydrating extravascular spaces

73
Q

what are isotonic crystalloids?

A

lactated ringers, 0.9% NaCl (normal saline)

74
Q

what are hypotonic crystalloids?

A

0.45% NaCl (hypotonic saline)

75
Q

What are colloids used for?

A

rehydrating intravascular spaces by pulling water from extravascular spaces

76
Q

What are hypertonic solutions of colloids?

A

hetastarch, mannitol

77
Q

what are the three phases of fluid therapy?

A

resuscitation, replacement, maintenance

78
Q

what is the goal with resuscitation

A

to increase intravascular fluid volume

79
Q

what fluids are used in resuscitation

A

crystalloids and colloids together

80
Q

what occurs during resuscitation

A

raises blood pressure, allows for better oxygen delivery

81
Q

when do we use resuscitation fluid therapy

A

with patients who have lost more than 30% of their intravascular fluid; blood loss & severe hydration

82
Q

what is the goal of replacement fluid therapy?

A

to correct dehydration

83
Q

how do we configure replacement values?

A

replacement = dehydration + ongoing losses + maintenance

84
Q

what is the formula for replacement fluid therapy?

A

body weight (kg) x dehydration% = fluid deficit (liters)

85
Q

how do you get from lbs to kg

A

divide lbs body weight by 2.2

86
Q

when do we use maintenance fluid therapy?

A

on patients that are not taking in water on their own; not dehydrated, no ongoing fluid loss

87
Q

Why is the cell membrane considered selectively permeable?

A

it is freely permeable to small molecules like water but impermeable to large molecules like hormones, nutrients, etc.

88
Q

what does cell membrane permeability allow for?

A

the maintenance of homeostasis within the cell

89
Q

what is active transport?

A

any transport across the membrane that requires ATP

90
Q

what is passive transport?

A

any movement across the cell membrane that does not require ATP or energy

91
Q

What is diffusion?

A

diffusion that takes advantage of a concentration gradient for molecules to move around

92
Q

What does the movement look like with diffusion?

A

molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

93
Q

what is the ability of a molecule to diffuse based on?

A

small molecular size, lipid solubility, and molecular charge

94
Q

what is facilitated diffusion?

A

diffusion that requires the help of a carrier protein to carry larger or lipid insoluble molecules across the membrane

95
Q

what are carrier proteins?

A

a type of integral protein within the membrane

96
Q

what is osmosis?

A

the movement of water across the membrane against it’s gradient

97
Q

what direction does water move?

A

opposite of diffusion

98
Q

What does water’s movement in the body do?

A

establish a concentration equilibrium where the solute concentration is equal on both sides

99
Q

What does the force of osmosis create?

A

osmotic pressure

100
Q

what is osmotic pressure if occurring inside a body?

A

oncotic pressure

101
Q

what is edema?

A

water moving into interstitial spaces excessively

102
Q

what is effusion?

A

water moving into body cavities excessively

103
Q

what is filtration?

A

pushing liquids through a membrane based on a pressure gradient

104
Q

what is hydrostatic pressure?

A

the force pushing a liquid through a membrane

105
Q

what is hydrostatic pressure when occurring in a body?

A

blood pressure

106
Q

what is blood pressure based on?

A

strength of the pump of the heart and diameter of vessels

107
Q

why does active transport require energy?

A

because larger molecules are being moved w/o or against a concentration gradient

108
Q

what are symporters?

A

ions flow in same direction

109
Q

what are antiporters?

A

ions flow in opposite direction

110
Q

what is cytosis?

A

a vesicle forming from the membrane itself and engulfing a large particle or cell which then enters the cell

111
Q

what is endocytosis?

A

the taking into of a cell

112
Q

what is phagocytosis?

A

a vesicle that engulfs a solid particle
phagosome

113
Q

what is pinocytosis?

A

a vesicle that engulfs a liquid particle
pinosome

114
Q

what is receptor mediated endocytosis?

A

special integral proteins on the surface of the membrane which initiate phagocytosis

115
Q

what is exocytosis?

A

excretion and secretions from cells

116
Q

what is an excretion?

A

exocytosis of waste products

117
Q

what is secretion?

A

exocytosis of functional manufactured molecules
mucus, neurotransmitters, histamine

118
Q

what is resting membrane potential?

A

the distribution of charges on either side of the cell membrane

119
Q

what is an uneven distribution of ions across the membrane maintained by?

A

a sodium-potassium pump

120
Q

how do cells replicate?

A

in 2 phases; interphase and mitotic phase

121
Q

what occurs during interphase?

A

cell is growing, maturing, and differentiating

122
Q

what occurs during the mitotic phase?

A

cell is actively dividing

123
Q

How do somatic cells divide and multiply?

A

through mitosis

124
Q

how do reproductive cells multiply and divide?

A

through meiosis

125
Q

what are the three subphases in interphase?

A

Growth 1 (G1), Synthetic (S), Growth Two (G2)

126
Q

What occurs in G1

A

intense growth and activity, cell doubles in size, organelles double, centrioles replicate

127
Q

What occurs in Synthetic?

A

DNA replication

128
Q

What occurs in G2?

A

synthesis of enzymes and proteins needed, growth continues, centrioles ready

129
Q

How is DNA replication carried out?

A

by proteins called replisomes; protein machines that have helpful enzymes

130
Q

What does the helicase do?

A

unravel double helix

131
Q

what does primase do?

A

start RNA primer

132
Q

what does replicase do?

A

completes RNA primer

133
Q

what does polymerase do?

A

makes the DNA strand

134
Q

what does ligase do?

A

attaches smaller segments of DNA together on the lagging strand

135
Q

what is the first step in DNA replication?

A

chromosomes uncoil

136
Q

what is the second step in DNA replication?

A

histones and DNA separate

137
Q

what is the third step in DNA replication?

A

helicase enzyme untwists the DNA and separates it into two strands

138
Q

what is the fourth step in DNA replication?

A

free floating nucleotides form an RNA primer on the unraveled DNA strand (primase and replicase)

139
Q

what is the fifth step in DNA replication?

A

After the primer, free floating nucleotides form the new DNA strand (DNA polymerase)

140
Q

what is the sixth step in DNA replication?

A

RNA primer is replaced by DNA (DNA polymerase)

141
Q

what is the first seventh in DNA replication?

A

DNA Ligase attaches small segments of DNA together

142
Q

what is the eighth step in DNA replication?

A

original and new DNA strand form identical chromatids

143
Q

what is the ninth step in DNA replication?

A

chromatids attach to centromeres

144
Q

what are the four stages of mitotic phase?

A

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

145
Q

what occurs during prophase?

A

nuclear envelope disappears, cytoskeleton microtubules disassemble, chromatin strands form ‘X’

146
Q

what occurs during metaphase?

A

chromosomes line up centrally along the metaphase plate, centromere of chromosomes attach to spindle fibers

147
Q

what occurs during anaphase?

A

centromeres split in half and single strand becomes its own strand, spindle fibers shorten pulling chromosomes to opposite sides, waist forms

148
Q

what occurs during telophase?

A

chromosomes movement stops, cell separates into two, nuclear envelope emerges around unraveled chromatin threads, nucleoli forms

149
Q

How does cell division end?

A

with cytokinesis, the separation of the two cytoplasm’s

150
Q

what signals control the rate of cell division?

A

contact inhibition, presence of growth-inhibiting substance, production of proteins during interphase

151
Q

what is contact inhibition?

A

when cells touch each other, they stop replicating

152
Q

what are cyclins?

A

proteins that increase in number during certain phases of the cell

153
Q

what is a cyclin dependent kinase?

A

always present, waiting to bind to cyclin to initiate cell division

154
Q

What results in cell differentiation?

A

the turning off temporarily or permanently of certain genes within cells depending on their function for the body

155
Q

what are genetic mutations?

A

errors spontaneously occurring in the order of nucleotides within a strand of DNA

156
Q

what severe genetic mutations lead to?

A

they can have little effect or so much effect they kill the cell

157
Q

What is transfer RNA (tRNA)

A

free floating nucleotides which attach to corresponding sections of mRNA to translate and produce proteins

158
Q

what is messenger RNA (mRNA)

A

records the DNA’s nucleotide order, bringing specific nucleotide orders to ribosomes, contains the information for genes

159
Q

what does a chain of amino acids form?

A

a protein

VMT 216 - Anatomy & Physiology (16 decks)

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