Chapter 22 Respiratory System Flashcards
1
Q
what are the two structural zones of the respiratory system?
A
upper respiratory tract (head)
lower respiratory tract (chest)
2
Q
what is included in the upper respiratory tract?
A
nose
nasal cavity
pharynx
3
Q
what is included in the lower respiratory tract?
A
Larynx
trachea
bronchi
lungs
4
Q
what is the function of the conducting zone/upper respiratory tract?
A
warm, humidify, and filter intake of air
5
Q
what is found within the respiratory zone?
A
actual site of gas exchange in the lungs
6
Q
what are the external nares? function?
A
holes in our nose to intake external air
7
Q
what is the vibrissae? function?
A
nose hairs (one example)
filter and clean air
8
Q
what is the nasal cavity?
A
internal cavity posterior to nose
9
Q
Nasal septum which part is cartilage, and which is bone?
A
nasal septum divides into:
posterior: vomer bone
ethmoid perpendicular plate
anterior: septal cartilage
10
Q
what is the structure and function of the olfactory epithelium?
A
lines superior region of nasal cavity
contains smell receptors
11
Q
what is the structure of respiratory mucosa?
A
located in the nasal cavity
composed of pseudostratified ciliated epithelium
12
Q
what is the function of respiratory mucosa?
A
function: produce 1 L of mucus/day to grab particles
protects by grabbing particles and moving them up towards the throat
13
Q
why is the respiratory mucosa highly vascularized?
A
the blood helps to warm air
14
Q
what is the structure of nasal conchae?
A
increase surface area
create turbulent air flow
15
Q
what is the purpose of the nasal conchae increasing surface area?
A
to warm inhalation (improving gas exchange)
to cool exhalation (conserve moisture)
16
Q
what is the purpose of the nasal conchae creating turbulence?
A
to slow airflow
trap heavy particles in mucus
17
Q
what is rhinitis?
A
rhin- nose
itis - inflammation
inflammation of the nasal mucosa
18
Q
what causes rhinits?
A
bacteria infection
viral infection
allergies
19
Q
how does rhinitis lead to sinusitis?
A
due to inflammation of sinuses caused by mucosa extending into nasolacrimal ducts and paranasal sinuses
20
Q
Where does the nasopharynx start/end?
A
location is posterior(back of) nasal cavity and ends at soft palate
21
Q
what are the pharyngeal tonsils and where are they located?
A
at the very back of the nasal cavity within the nasopharynx
immune surveillance
aka: adenoids
22
Q
what is the uvula and where is it located?
A
under soft palate;
soft palate and uvula move up to block food from entering up into the nasal cavity while swallowing
23
Q
what causes mouth breathing when swollen?
A
pharyngeal tonsils
24
Q
What is the function of oropharynx and where is it located?
A
passage for both food and air;
soft palate to epiglottis
25
what is the isthmus of the fauces? where is it located?
opening to oral cavity
within the oropharynx region
26
what is located at the isthmus of the fauces?
palatine tonsils
lingual tonsils
27
what type of epithelium is the region of the oropharynx lined with? why?
stratified squamous epithelium;
to protect when food is passing through
28
what is the function of the laryngopharynx and where is it located?
food and air passageway
from epiglottis to larynx
29
what type of epithelium is the region of the laryngopharynx lined with? why?
stratified squamous epithelium;
to protect when food passes through
30
what two regions does the laryngopharynx get broken down into?
posterior: esophagus
anterior: larynx/ trachea
31
what is the epiglottis' function?
protects food from entering the larynx while swallowing
32
33
what is the larynx? its functions?
voice box
1. opening to trachea
2. separate food and air
3. produce voice
34
how many cartilages make up the area of the larynx?
9 cartilages connected by membranes and ligaments
35
Where does the larynx starts/end?
between hyoid bone/epiglottis and trachea
36
what are the true vocal cords?
the ones that vibrate to make noise
37
what are the true vocal cords made of?
white, avascular, elastic ligaments
38
what type of epithelium is found beneath the larynx?
pseudostratified epithelium
39
what is the glottis?
consist of the true vocal cords and also the medial opening between the vocal cords
40
what are the vestibular folds? another name for them?
false vocal cords;
help open and close glottis but produce NO sound
41
what is the differences between the true vocal cords and the false vocal cords?
false are more vascular than the true
false are more superior
false produce no sound
42
what is laryngitis?
inflammation of the vocal cords
interferes vibration/ voice production
43
what are the causes of laryngitis?
infection
overuse
dry air
tumors
chemical irritants
44
what is the function of trachealis muscles?
decrease diameter of trachea (like when we sneeze) causing air to be able to leave at 100 mph
45
what is the function and location of the carina?
located at split of both main bronchi
sensitive cartilage that triggers coughing
46
what are tracheal cartilages made of?
hyaline cartilage
47
what is the tissue found lining from the larynx to the root of lungs?
pseudostratified squamous epithelium
48
what does smoking cause to happen to the tissue of the respiratory mucosa?
inhibits and destroys function of cilia which then causes coughing to be the only way to prevent mucous from accumulating in the lungs (smoker's cough)
49
because smokers need to cough, what are they not prescribed when sick?
cough suppressants
50
where do the bronchi lead to?
alveoli
51
where does the trachea split into the bronchi?
at T7
52
which main bronchi is shorter? what does this result in?
right is shorter and wider (resulting in more foreign objects being found here)
53
what is the bronchi tree composed of?
23 orders of branching (primary, secondary, etc)
bronchioles
terminal bronchioles
54
what is the diameter of bronchioles?
1mm
55
what is the function of terminal bronchioles?
feed directly to the respiratory zone
56
what are the structures that make up the respiratory zone?
alveolar ducts
alveolar sacs
alveoli
alveolar pores
57
what is the function of the alveolar pores?
connect adjacent alveoli in the sac
58
what are the alveolar sacs composed of?
hollow air-filled spaces of connected alveoli
59
what is found at the microscopic level of alveoli?
Type I cells
Type II cells
Alveolar macrophages
pulmonary capillaries
60
what are type I cells?
simple squamous epithelium
61
what are type II cells?
produce surfactant
62
what are alveolar macrophages? what is significant about them?
keep lungs sterile
they never leave the lungs
63
where are the pulmonary capillaries located? function?
surrounding the alveoli;
location of gas exchange
64
what is the purpose of the surfactant produced by the type II cells?
disrupts alveolar surface tension
surface tension can cause collapse of alveolus
65
how is surfactant linked to IRDS? what is IRDS?
Infant respiratory distress syndrome
premature babies do not make surfactant so their lungs so their lungs cannot inflate
66
what does IRDS cause to happen to baby?
tachypnea (fast breathing)
tachycardia (fast heart beat)
67
what do we do to treat IRDS?
administer synthetic or animal-based surfactant through breathing tube
68
what is the tissue called within alveoli?
stroma
69
what is stroma consist of that helps it fill with air?
elastic connective tissue
allowing it to expand and recoil during breathing
70
what are the names and locations of the structures of the pleural sacs?
parietal pleura - lines thoracic wall
visceral pleura - lines external surface of lung
pleural cavity - between the two membranes
71
what is the function of the pleural sacs?
reduces friction when breathing
keeps lungs inflated
72
what is the function of pleural cavity?
reduces friction and creates vacuum
73
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75
76
what are the four steps of respiration?
1. pulmonary ventilation
2. external respiration
3. transport of respiratory gases
4. internal respiration
77
what is the purpose of pulmonary ventilation?
movement of air (inhale/exhale)
78
what is the purpose of external respiration?
gas exchange in lungs (outside air entering blood)
79
Where does the transporting of respiratory gases occur?
in blood
80
where does internal respiration occur?
gas exchange in tissues
81
what is Boyle's law?
the pressure of gas varies inversely with its volume at a fixed temperature
82
increasing volume results in...?
decrease in pressure
83
decreasing volume results in...?
increase in pressure
84
what is responsible for changing the volume in our lungs?
muscle contraction and relaxation
85
define
atmospheric pressure
the pressure of the air outside of our bodies;
760 mm Hg average
86
define
intrapulmonary pressure
pressure within the alveoli
varies with inhalation/exhalation
87
how can we calculate respiratory pressure?
88
what does respiratory pressure determine?
direction of air flow
89
If you have a negative value of respiratory pressure, what direction is the air flowing?
into the lungs (breathing in)
90
If you have a positive value of respiratory pressure, what direction is the air flowing?
out of the lungs (breathing out)
91
define
intrapleural pressure
pressure inside pleural cavity
variable but ALWAYS is less than Ppul
92
what is the equation for finding transpulmonary pressure?
93
what causes intrapleural pressure?
balance between forces pulling parietal pleura outwards and visceral pleura inwards
94
which pressure is responsible for lung vacuum?
transpulmonary pressure
if it was at zero, a collapsed lung would result
95
what is a pneumothorax?
collapsed lung
96
what is pneumothorax caused by?
air or increased fluid entering pleural space
usually due to trauma
97
how would we treat a pneumothorax?
removing air or fluid by needle or chest tube
98
99
what direction is the air flowing?
100
101
which intercostals helps with inspiration?
contraction of external intercostals
102
is Ppul higher or lower than Patm during inspiration?
lower
103
during forced inspiration, what muscles aid?
scalenes
sternocleidomastoid
pectoralis minor
104
when would we use forced inspiration?
vigorous exercise
disease
lab experiments
105
during normal expiration, what aids?
muscles relax
elasticity of lungs brings lungs together (decreasing volume)
106
is Ppul higher or lower than Patm during expiration?
higher inside Ppul
107
what muscles aid in forced expiration?
obliques
transverse abdominals
internal intercostals
108
when would we need to force expiration?
singing
COPD
lab experiments
109
what is an example of a toxin that leads to paralysis and suffocation? how?
tetrodotoxin
blocks voltage gated Na+ channels in skeletal muscles which are responsible for depolarization of action potential
110
what is pulmonary fibrosis?
elastic stroma is replaced w/non-elastic scar tissue (lungs are unable to recoil after inspiration)
111
what can cause pulmonary fibrosis?
infection
smoking
pollutants
112
113
what is the equation associated with resistance to air flow in bronchial tree?
114
bronchodilation is caused by activation of which nervous system?
sympathetic nervous system
115
bronchoconstriction caused by activation of which nervous system?
parasympathetic nervous system
116
117
118
119
how thick is the barrier between air in alveoli and blood in capillary?
120
gas exchange occurs by simple _________
diffusion
121
what is the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli?
104 mm Hg
122
what is the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood in pulmonary capillaries?
40 mm Hg
123
what is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the alveoli?
40 mm Hg
124
what is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood in the pulmonary capillaries?
45 mm Hg
125
which type of capillaries does internal respiration occur?
systemic capillaries
126
what is the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood of systemic capillaries?
100 mm Hg
127
what is the partial pressure of oxygen in the tissues?
40 mm Hg
128
what is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood of systemic capillaries?
40 mmHg
129
what is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood of systemic capillaries?
40 mm Hg
130
what is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the tissues?
45 mm Hg
131
diagram external respiration
132
diagram internal respiration
133
which respiration would fluid build up within lungs have an effect on? why?
external respiration
excess fluid increases distance gases must travel
134
would collapsed alveolar walls increase or decrease surface area? what would this result in?
decrease surface area
decreased gas exchange
135
what are the two variables associated with gas exchange?
ventilation (V)
perfusion (Q)
136
what is ventilation?
delivery of AIR to alveoli
137
How do lungs regulate ventilation?
bronchodilation
bronchoconstriction
138
what is perfusion?
delivery of BLOOD to alveoli
139
How do pulmonary capillaries regulate perfusion?
vasodilation
vasoconstriction
140
how long does it take to oxygenate the blood in the pulmonary capillaries?
0.25 seconds
141
how are ventilation and perfusion coupled?
ventilation : bronchioles respond to changes in partial pressure of CO2
perfusion: blood vessels respond to changes in partial pressure of O2
142
what is the value that ventilation and perfusion equal?
0.8
(unitless)
143
when someone is experiencing poor ventilation, and the partial pressure of oxygen within the alveoli decreases, what is the response?
vasoconstriction (reduces perfusion to match low ventilation)
144
when someone is experiencing poor ventilation, and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide within the alveoli increases, what is the response?
bronchioles dilate (increases ventilation to speed up CO2 removal)
145
when someone is experiencing excessive ventilation, and the partial pressure of oxygen within the alveoli increases, what is the response?
vasodilation (to increase perfusion to match higher ventilation)
146
when someone is experiencing excessive ventilation, and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide within the alveoli decreases, what is the response?
bronchoconstriction (to reduce air flow to alveoli - ventilation)
147
148
149
150
151
where does most oxygen get transported by? the rest?
99% is carried within hemoglobin of RBC
1% is dissolved in plasma
152
how many molecules of oxygen can bind to hemoglobin?
4
153
what does affinity mean?
strength of binding
154
what does the flat top of the Hb -oxygen binding curve mean?
high partial pressure of O2 causes Hb to bind tightly
155
what does the steep curve of the Hb -oxygen binding curve mean?
at lower partial pressure of O2, significant amount of O2 is released
156
Describe the relationship of partial pressure of oxygen and the affinity of oxygen Hb has
the lower the partial pressure of O2, the lesser the bonding between O2 and hemoglobin
higher partial pressure of O2 means Hb binds more tightly to O2
157
how does affinity change in resting bs active tissues?
partial pressure of resting tissues is higher (40 mmHg) than active tissues (20 mmHg) allowing for a lower affinity in active tissues than in resting tissues
this makes sense because we want the RBCs to be able to drop off oxygen to actively used muscles
158
159
what effect do high temps have on affinity? what kind of shift does this cause?
decrease affinity
right shift
160
what do low temps have on affinity? what kind of shift does this cause?
increase affinity
left shift
161
what does a pH decrease affect affinity?
decreases affinity
162
how does a pH increase effect affinity?
increases affinity
163
what effect does BPG have on affinity?
decreases affinity
164
what does BPG stand for?
2,3- biphosphoglycerate
165
what prodces BPG why?
RBCs
every RBC after leaving lungs releases BPG
and then destroys it on RBCs way back to the lungs
166
how does carbon monoxide effect oxygen binding? what happens?
CO binds to heme better than O2 so CO occupies O2 binding sites causing suffocation
167
168
what percentages and where does CO2 get transported?
169
does Co2 remain in blood?
no, it gets converted to bicarbonate while in RBC
170
show reaction for what chmically happens to CO2 in blood
171
In the pulmonary capillaries, which direction is the reaction going?
reverse reaction
172
In the systemic capillaries, which direction is the reaction going?
Co2 and water are reactants
173
what role does carbonic anhydrase play?
it is the catalyst (speeds up formation of carbonic acid
174
during internal respiration, what role does chloride have?
balances HCO3-
175
during external respiration, what role does chloride have?
gets transported back out of the RBC
176
177
178
179
what does VGR stand for?
ventral respiratory group
180
what does VGR responsible for?
sets the breathing rate (clock)
181
what does DRG stand for?
dorsal respiratory group
182
what is DRG responsible for?
modifies rhythm generated by VRG (tells clock to go faster)
183
where are the VRG and DRG located
in the medulla oblongata
184
how many breaths per minute? what is responsible for setting this?
12-15 breaths per minute
set by VRG
185
define eupnea
good/normal breathing cycle
2 seconds of inspiration
3 seconds of expiration
186
what effect do opiates have?
supress VRG
187
what does PRG stand for?
pontine respiratory group
188
where is PRG located/
within the pons
189
what is function of PRG?
sends signals to modify the breathing rhythm (during speaking, sleeping and exercise)
190
what would lesions in the PRG center result in?
apneustic breathing
191
define apneustic breathing
prolonged inspiration (longer than expiration)
192
how does the hypothalamus effect VRG and PRG?
strong emotions and temperature are all regulated in hypothalamus and so can cause changes in breathing
193
sever cold can _____ breathing
stop
194
what is the definition of apnea?
the total stop of breathing
195
how does the cerebral cortex play into breathingn?
it is involved with concious control of breathing
regulate by VRG
196
197
198
199
what affect does hypercapnia have on breathing rate and depth?
too much CO2
increased breathing depth and rate
200
what effect does hypocapnia have?
decrease breathing rate
201
how does hypercapnia and hypocapnia effect pH?
think of CO2 as acidic
increased CO2 = more acidic
decreased CO2 = more basic
202
203
204
205
define hypoxia
inadequate oxygen delivery to body tissues
206
what are three types of hypoxia?
anemic
ischemic
histoxic
207
define anemic hypoxia
blood unable to carry oxygen
208
what is associated with anemic hypoxia?
low RBC count
iron-defic
209
define ischemic hypoxia
blood circulation is impaired or blocked
210
local ischemic hypoxia caused by what?
embolus
thrombus
211
systemic ischemic hypoxia caused by what?
heart failure
212
deinfe histotoxic hypoxia
cells unable to use oxygen that is delivered
213
what causes histotoxic hypoxia?
cyanide poisoning
214
what is COPD?
215
what are two examples of COPD?
emphysema
chronic bonchitis
216
deinfe dyspnea
difficulty breathing
217
which mucles do COPD patients have to use
accessory forced exhale muscles
218
what is a pink puffer?
pink because skin color is good (getting enough oxygen because they are using accessory muscles for every breath, causing them to be thin because they are burning so many calories using the extra muscles)
219
what is a blue bloater?
brain centers do not force exhale, so they just live with not get enough oxygen moving around
220
treatment for COPD?
stop smoking
bronchodilators
supplemental Oxygen
lung reduction surgery
221
asthma symptoms
Periods of
* Coughing
* Wheezing
* Dyspnea
* Chest tightness
222
difference between asthma and COPD
asthma is reversible (bronchioles are normal most of the time)
COPD is not
223
what causes asthma?
allergies
224
treatment for asthma?
bronchodilators
Inhaled corticosteroids
* Suppress immune system
* Allergy-desensitization shots
* Anti-IgE antibodies
225
226
227
What color is carbaminohemoglobin?
Blue-green
228
Describe the Bohr effect
Acid lowers hemoglobins affinity for oxygen ?..
