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Anatomy and Physiology II > Chapter 22 Respiratory System > Flashcards

Chapter 22 Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

what are the two structural zones of the respiratory system?

A

upper respiratory tract (head)
lower respiratory tract (chest)

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2
Q

what is included in the upper respiratory tract?

A

nose
nasal cavity
pharynx

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3
Q

what is included in the lower respiratory tract?

A

Larynx
trachea
bronchi
lungs

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4
Q

what is the function of the conducting zone/upper respiratory tract?

A

warm, humidify, and filter intake of air

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5
Q

what is found within the respiratory zone?

A

actual site of gas exchange in the lungs

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6
Q

what are the external nares? function?

A

holes in our nose to intake external air

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7
Q

what is the vibrissae? function?

A

nose hairs (one example)
filter and clean air

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8
Q

what is the nasal cavity?

A

internal cavity posterior to nose

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9
Q

Nasal septum which part is cartilage, and which is bone?

A

nasal septum divides into:

posterior: vomer bone
ethmoid perpendicular plate

anterior: septal cartilage

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10
Q

what is the structure and function of the olfactory epithelium?

A

lines superior region of nasal cavity
contains smell receptors

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11
Q

what is the structure of respiratory mucosa?

A

located in the nasal cavity
composed of pseudostratified ciliated epithelium

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12
Q

what is the function of respiratory mucosa?

A

function: produce 1 L of mucus/day to grab particles
protects by grabbing particles and moving them up towards the throat

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13
Q

why is the respiratory mucosa highly vascularized?

A

the blood helps to warm air

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14
Q

what is the structure of nasal conchae?

A

increase surface area
create turbulent air flow

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15
Q

what is the purpose of the nasal conchae increasing surface area?

A

to warm inhalation (improving gas exchange)
to cool exhalation (conserve moisture)

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16
Q

what is the purpose of the nasal conchae creating turbulence?

A

to slow airflow
trap heavy particles in mucus

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17
Q

what is rhinitis?

A

rhin- nose
itis - inflammation

inflammation of the nasal mucosa

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18
Q

what causes rhinits?

A

bacteria infection
viral infection
allergies

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19
Q

how does rhinitis lead to sinusitis?

A

due to inflammation of sinuses caused by mucosa extending into nasolacrimal ducts and paranasal sinuses

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20
Q

Where does the nasopharynx start/end?

A

location is posterior(back of) nasal cavity and ends at soft palate

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21
Q

what are the pharyngeal tonsils and where are they located?

A

at the very back of the nasal cavity within the nasopharynx
immune surveillance
aka: adenoids

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22
Q

what is the uvula and where is it located?

A

under soft palate;
soft palate and uvula move up to block food from entering up into the nasal cavity while swallowing

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23
Q

what causes mouth breathing when swollen?

A

pharyngeal tonsils

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24
Q

What is the function of oropharynx and where is it located?

A

passage for both food and air;
soft palate to epiglottis

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25
Q

what is the isthmus of the fauces? where is it located?

A

opening to oral cavity
within the oropharynx region

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26
Q

what is located at the isthmus of the fauces?

A

palatine tonsils
lingual tonsils

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27
Q

what type of epithelium is the region of the oropharynx lined with? why?

A

stratified squamous epithelium;
to protect when food is passing through

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28
Q

what is the function of the laryngopharynx and where is it located?

A

food and air passageway
from epiglottis to larynx

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29
Q

what type of epithelium is the region of the laryngopharynx lined with? why?

A

stratified squamous epithelium;
to protect when food passes through

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30
Q

what two regions does the laryngopharynx get broken down into?

A

posterior: esophagus
anterior: larynx/ trachea

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31
Q

what is the epiglottis’ function?

A

protects food from entering the larynx while swallowing

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32
Q
A
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33
Q

what is the larynx? its functions?

A

voice box
1. opening to trachea
2. separate food and air
3. produce voice

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34
Q

how many cartilages make up the area of the larynx?

A

9 cartilages connected by membranes and ligaments

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35
Q

Where does the larynx starts/end?

A

between hyoid bone/epiglottis and trachea

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36
Q

what are the true vocal cords?

A

the ones that vibrate to make noise

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37
Q

what are the true vocal cords made of?

A

white, avascular, elastic ligaments

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38
Q

what type of epithelium is found beneath the larynx?

A

pseudostratified epithelium

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39
Q

what is the glottis?

A

consist of the true vocal cords and also the medial opening between the vocal cords

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40
Q

what are the vestibular folds? another name for them?

A

false vocal cords;
help open and close glottis but produce NO sound

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41
Q

what is the differences between the true vocal cords and the false vocal cords?

A

false are more vascular than the true
false are more superior
false produce no sound

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42
Q

what is laryngitis?

A

inflammation of the vocal cords
interferes vibration/ voice production

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43
Q

what are the causes of laryngitis?

A

infection
overuse
dry air
tumors
chemical irritants

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44
Q

what is the function of trachealis muscles?

A

decrease diameter of trachea (like when we sneeze) causing air to be able to leave at 100 mph

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45
Q

what is the function and location of the carina?

A

located at split of both main bronchi
sensitive cartilage that triggers coughing

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46
Q

what are tracheal cartilages made of?

A

hyaline cartilage

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47
Q

what is the tissue found lining from the larynx to the root of lungs?

A

pseudostratified squamous epithelium

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48
Q

what does smoking cause to happen to the tissue of the respiratory mucosa?

A

inhibits and destroys function of cilia which then causes coughing to be the only way to prevent mucous from accumulating in the lungs (smoker’s cough)

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49
Q

because smokers need to cough, what are they not prescribed when sick?

A

cough suppressants

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50
Q

where do the bronchi lead to?

A

alveoli

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51
Q

where does the trachea split into the bronchi?

A

at T7

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52
Q

which main bronchi is shorter? what does this result in?

A

right is shorter and wider (resulting in more foreign objects being found here)

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53
Q

what is the bronchi tree composed of?

A

23 orders of branching (primary, secondary, etc)
bronchioles
terminal bronchioles

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54
Q

what is the diameter of bronchioles?

A

1mm

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55
Q

what is the function of terminal bronchioles?

A

feed directly to the respiratory zone

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56
Q

what are the structures that make up the respiratory zone?

A

alveolar ducts
alveolar sacs
alveoli
alveolar pores

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57
Q

what is the function of the alveolar pores?

A

connect adjacent alveoli in the sac

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58
Q

what are the alveolar sacs composed of?

A

hollow air-filled spaces of connected alveoli

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59
Q

what is found at the microscopic level of alveoli?

A

Type I cells
Type II cells
Alveolar macrophages
pulmonary capillaries

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60
Q

what are type I cells?

A

simple squamous epithelium

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61
Q

what are type II cells?

A

produce surfactant

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62
Q

what are alveolar macrophages? what is significant about them?

A

keep lungs sterile
they never leave the lungs

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63
Q

where are the pulmonary capillaries located? function?

A

surrounding the alveoli;
location of gas exchange

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64
Q

what is the purpose of the surfactant produced by the type II cells?

A

disrupts alveolar surface tension
surface tension can cause collapse of alveolus

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65
Q

how is surfactant linked to IRDS? what is IRDS?

A

Infant respiratory distress syndrome
premature babies do not make surfactant so their lungs so their lungs cannot inflate

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66
Q

what does IRDS cause to happen to baby?

A

tachypnea (fast breathing)
tachycardia (fast heart beat)

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67
Q

what do we do to treat IRDS?

A

administer synthetic or animal-based surfactant through breathing tube

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68
Q

what is the tissue called within alveoli?

A

stroma

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69
Q

what is stroma consist of that helps it fill with air?

A

elastic connective tissue
allowing it to expand and recoil during breathing

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70
Q

what are the names and locations of the structures of the pleural sacs?

A

parietal pleura - lines thoracic wall
visceral pleura - lines external surface of lung
pleural cavity - between the two membranes

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71
Q

what is the function of the pleural sacs?

A

reduces friction when breathing
keeps lungs inflated

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72
Q

what is the function of pleural cavity?

A

reduces friction and creates vacuum

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73
Q
A
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74
Q
A
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75
Q
A
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76
Q

what are the four steps of respiration?

A
  1. pulmonary ventilation
  2. external respiration
  3. transport of respiratory gases
  4. internal respiration
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77
Q

what is the purpose of pulmonary ventilation?

A

movement of air (inhale/exhale)

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78
Q

what is the purpose of external respiration?

A

gas exchange in lungs (outside air entering blood)

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79
Q

Where does the transporting of respiratory gases occur?

A

in blood

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80
Q

where does internal respiration occur?

A

gas exchange in tissues

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81
Q

what is Boyle’s law?

A

the pressure of gas varies inversely with its volume at a fixed temperature

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82
Q

increasing volume results in…?

A

decrease in pressure

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83
Q

decreasing volume results in…?

A

increase in pressure

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84
Q

what is responsible for changing the volume in our lungs?

A

muscle contraction and relaxation

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85
Q

define

A

atmospheric pressure
the pressure of the air outside of our bodies;
760 mm Hg average

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86
Q

define

A

intrapulmonary pressure
pressure within the alveoli
varies with inhalation/exhalation

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87
Q

how can we calculate respiratory pressure?

A
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88
Q

what does respiratory pressure determine?

A

direction of air flow

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89
Q

If you have a negative value of respiratory pressure, what direction is the air flowing?

A

into the lungs (breathing in)

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90
Q

If you have a positive value of respiratory pressure, what direction is the air flowing?

A

out of the lungs (breathing out)

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91
Q

define

A

intrapleural pressure
pressure inside pleural cavity
variable but ALWAYS is less than Ppul

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92
Q

what is the equation for finding transpulmonary pressure?

93
Q

what causes intrapleural pressure?

A

balance between forces pulling parietal pleura outwards and visceral pleura inwards

94
Q

which pressure is responsible for lung vacuum?

A

transpulmonary pressure
if it was at zero, a collapsed lung would result

95
Q

what is a pneumothorax?

A

collapsed lung

96
Q

what is pneumothorax caused by?

A

air or increased fluid entering pleural space
usually due to trauma

97
Q

how would we treat a pneumothorax?

A

removing air or fluid by needle or chest tube

99
Q

what direction is the air flowing?

101
Q

which intercostals helps with inspiration?

A

contraction of external intercostals

102
Q

is Ppul higher or lower than Patm during inspiration?

103
Q

during forced inspiration, what muscles aid?

A

scalenes
sternocleidomastoid
pectoralis minor

104
Q

when would we use forced inspiration?

A

vigorous exercise
disease
lab experiments

105
Q

during normal expiration, what aids?

A

muscles relax
elasticity of lungs brings lungs together (decreasing volume)

106
Q

is Ppul higher or lower than Patm during expiration?

A

higher inside Ppul

107
Q

what muscles aid in forced expiration?

A

obliques
transverse abdominals
internal intercostals

108
Q

when would we need to force expiration?

A

singing
COPD
lab experiments

109
Q

what is an example of a toxin that leads to paralysis and suffocation? how?

A

tetrodotoxin
blocks voltage gated Na+ channels in skeletal muscles which are responsible for depolarization of action potential

110
Q

what is pulmonary fibrosis?

A

elastic stroma is replaced w/non-elastic scar tissue (lungs are unable to recoil after inspiration)

111
Q

what can cause pulmonary fibrosis?

A

infection
smoking
pollutants

113
Q

what is the equation associated with resistance to air flow in bronchial tree?

114
Q

bronchodilation is caused by activation of which nervous system?

A

sympathetic nervous system

115
Q

bronchoconstriction caused by activation of which nervous system?

A

parasympathetic nervous system

119
Q

how thick is the barrier between air in alveoli and blood in capillary?

120
Q

gas exchange occurs by simple _________

121
Q

what is the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli?

122
Q

what is the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood in pulmonary capillaries?

123
Q

what is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the alveoli?

124
Q

what is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood in the pulmonary capillaries?

125
Q

which type of capillaries does internal respiration occur?

A

systemic capillaries

126
Q

what is the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood of systemic capillaries?

127
Q

what is the partial pressure of oxygen in the tissues?

128
Q

what is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood of systemic capillaries?

129
Q

what is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood of systemic capillaries?

130
Q

what is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the tissues?

131
Q

diagram external respiration

132
Q

diagram internal respiration

133
Q

which respiration would fluid build up within lungs have an effect on? why?

A

external respiration
excess fluid increases distance gases must travel

134
Q

would collapsed alveolar walls increase or decrease surface area? what would this result in?

A

decrease surface area
decreased gas exchange

135
Q

what are the two variables associated with gas exchange?

A

ventilation (V)
perfusion (Q)

136
Q

what is ventilation?

A

delivery of AIR to alveoli

137
Q

How do lungs regulate ventilation?

A

bronchodilation
bronchoconstriction

138
Q

what is perfusion?

A

delivery of BLOOD to alveoli

139
Q

How do pulmonary capillaries regulate perfusion?

A

vasodilation
vasoconstriction

140
Q

how long does it take to oxygenate the blood in the pulmonary capillaries?

A

0.25 seconds

141
Q

how are ventilation and perfusion coupled?

A

ventilation : bronchioles respond to changes in partial pressure of CO2

perfusion: blood vessels respond to changes in partial pressure of O2

142
Q

what is the value that ventilation and perfusion equal?

A

0.8
(unitless)

143
Q

when someone is experiencing poor ventilation, and the partial pressure of oxygen within the alveoli decreases, what is the response?

A

vasoconstriction (reduces perfusion to match low ventilation)

144
Q

when someone is experiencing poor ventilation, and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide within the alveoli increases, what is the response?

A

bronchioles dilate (increases ventilation to speed up CO2 removal)

145
Q

when someone is experiencing excessive ventilation, and the partial pressure of oxygen within the alveoli increases, what is the response?

A

vasodilation (to increase perfusion to match higher ventilation)

146
Q

when someone is experiencing excessive ventilation, and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide within the alveoli decreases, what is the response?

A

bronchoconstriction (to reduce air flow to alveoli - ventilation)

151
Q

where does most oxygen get transported by? the rest?

A

99% is carried within hemoglobin of RBC
1% is dissolved in plasma

152
Q

how many molecules of oxygen can bind to hemoglobin?

153
Q

what does affinity mean?

A

strength of binding

154
Q

what does the flat top of the Hb -oxygen binding curve mean?

A

high partial pressure of O2 causes Hb to bind tightly

155
Q

what does the steep curve of the Hb -oxygen binding curve mean?

A

at lower partial pressure of O2, significant amount of O2 is released

156
Q

Describe the relationship of partial pressure of oxygen and the affinity of oxygen Hb has

A

the lower the partial pressure of O2, the lesser the bonding between O2 and hemoglobin

higher partial pressure of O2 means Hb binds more tightly to O2

157
Q

how does affinity change in resting bs active tissues?

A

partial pressure of resting tissues is higher (40 mmHg) than active tissues (20 mmHg) allowing for a lower affinity in active tissues than in resting tissues

this makes sense because we want the RBCs to be able to drop off oxygen to actively used muscles

159
Q

what effect do high temps have on affinity? what kind of shift does this cause?

A

decrease affinity
right shift

160
Q

what do low temps have on affinity? what kind of shift does this cause?

A

increase affinity
left shift

161
Q

what does a pH decrease affect affinity?

A

decreases affinity

162
Q

how does a pH increase effect affinity?

A

increases affinity

163
Q

what effect does BPG have on affinity?

A

decreases affinity

164
Q

what does BPG stand for?

A

2,3- biphosphoglycerate

165
Q

what prodces BPG why?

A

RBCs
every RBC after leaving lungs releases BPG
and then destroys it on RBCs way back to the lungs

166
Q

how does carbon monoxide effect oxygen binding? what happens?

A

CO binds to heme better than O2 so CO occupies O2 binding sites causing suffocation

168
Q

what percentages and where does CO2 get transported?

169
Q

does Co2 remain in blood?

A

no, it gets converted to bicarbonate while in RBC

170
Q

show reaction for what chmically happens to CO2 in blood

171
Q

In the pulmonary capillaries, which direction is the reaction going?

A

reverse reaction

172
Q

In the systemic capillaries, which direction is the reaction going?

A

Co2 and water are reactants

173
Q

what role does carbonic anhydrase play?

A

it is the catalyst (speeds up formation of carbonic acid

174
Q

during internal respiration, what role does chloride have?

A

balances HCO3-

175
Q

during external respiration, what role does chloride have?

A

gets transported back out of the RBC

179
Q

what does VGR stand for?

A

ventral respiratory group

180
Q

what does VGR responsible for?

A

sets the breathing rate (clock)

181
Q

what does DRG stand for?

A

dorsal respiratory group

182
Q

what is DRG responsible for?

A

modifies rhythm generated by VRG (tells clock to go faster)

183
Q

where are the VRG and DRG located

A

in the medulla oblongata

184
Q

how many breaths per minute? what is responsible for setting this?

A

12-15 breaths per minute
set by VRG

185
Q

define eupnea

A

good/normal breathing cycle
2 seconds of inspiration
3 seconds of expiration

186
Q

what effect do opiates have?

A

supress VRG

187
Q

what does PRG stand for?

A

pontine respiratory group

188
Q

where is PRG located/

A

within the pons

189
Q

what is function of PRG?

A

sends signals to modify the breathing rhythm (during speaking, sleeping and exercise)

190
Q

what would lesions in the PRG center result in?

A

apneustic breathing

191
Q

define apneustic breathing

A

prolonged inspiration (longer than expiration)

192
Q

how does the hypothalamus effect VRG and PRG?

A

strong emotions and temperature are all regulated in hypothalamus and so can cause changes in breathing

193
Q

sever cold can _____ breathing

194
Q

what is the definition of apnea?

A

the total stop of breathing

195
Q

how does the cerebral cortex play into breathingn?

A

it is involved with concious control of breathing
regulate by VRG

199
Q

what affect does hypercapnia have on breathing rate and depth?

A

too much CO2
increased breathing depth and rate

200
Q

what effect does hypocapnia have?

A

decrease breathing rate

201
Q

how does hypercapnia and hypocapnia effect pH?

A

think of CO2 as acidic
increased CO2 = more acidic
decreased CO2 = more basic

205
Q

define hypoxia

A

inadequate oxygen delivery to body tissues

206
Q

what are three types of hypoxia?

A

anemic
ischemic
histoxic

207
Q

define anemic hypoxia

A

blood unable to carry oxygen

208
Q

what is associated with anemic hypoxia?

A

low RBC count
iron-defic

209
Q

define ischemic hypoxia

A

blood circulation is impaired or blocked

210
Q

local ischemic hypoxia caused by what?

A

embolus
thrombus

211
Q

systemic ischemic hypoxia caused by what?

A

heart failure

212
Q

deinfe histotoxic hypoxia

A

cells unable to use oxygen that is delivered

213
Q

what causes histotoxic hypoxia?

A

cyanide poisoning

214
Q

what is COPD?

215
Q

what are two examples of COPD?

A

emphysema
chronic bonchitis

216
Q

deinfe dyspnea

A

difficulty breathing

217
Q

which mucles do COPD patients have to use

A

accessory forced exhale muscles

218
Q

what is a pink puffer?

A

pink because skin color is good (getting enough oxygen because they are using accessory muscles for every breath, causing them to be thin because they are burning so many calories using the extra muscles)

219
Q

what is a blue bloater?

A

brain centers do not force exhale, so they just live with not get enough oxygen moving around

220
Q

treatment for COPD?

A

stop smoking
bronchodilators
supplemental Oxygen
lung reduction surgery

221
Q

asthma symptoms

A

Periods of
* Coughing
* Wheezing
* Dyspnea
* Chest tightness

222
Q

difference between asthma and COPD

A

asthma is reversible (bronchioles are normal most of the time)
COPD is not

223
Q

what causes asthma?

224
Q

treatment for asthma?

A

bronchodilators
Inhaled corticosteroids
* Suppress immune system
* Allergy-desensitization shots
* Anti-IgE antibodies

227
Q

What color is carbaminohemoglobin?

A

Blue-green

228
Q

Describe the Bohr effect

A

Acid lowers hemoglobins affinity for oxygen ?..

Anatomy and Physiology II (12 decks)

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