Chapter 22 book notes Flashcards
As part of the urinary system, the kidneys are responsible for filtering the ??
and removing excess fluid and wastes for elimination in ??
-blood
-urine
One kidney contains how many nephrons?
-one million
nephron:
-the functional unit of the kidneys, consisting of a glomerulus and tubules.
filtrate:
-substances that pass through the glomerulus and travel through the nephron’s tubules, eventually forming urine.
glomerulus:
-a ball shape tuft of capillaries
-filters water and solutes from the blood as urine production begins
tubules:
-tubelike structures of the nephron that process filtrate during urine production.
Bowman’s capsule:
-a cuplike component of the nephron that surrounds the glomerulus and
collects the filtrate that is passed to the tubules.
As the filtrate moves through the tubules, its composition
continuously changes as some of its components are ?? and returned to the blood via ?? surrounding the tubules; the remaining substances contribute to the final ?? product.
-reabsorbed
-capillaries
-urine
By filtering the blood and forming urine, the kidneys regulate (3):
-volume and osmolarity,
-electrolyte concentrations,
-acid–base balance.
They also excrete metabolic waste products such as ?? and ?? , as well as various drugs and toxicants
-urea
-creatinine
Other roles of the kidneys include the following:
-Secretion of the enzyme renin, which helps to regulate blood pressure —
-Production of the hormone erythropoietin, which stimulates the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow
-Conversion of vitamin D to its active form, thereby helping to regulate calcium
balance and bone formation
nephrotic syndrome:
-a syndrome caused by significant urinary protein losses (more than 3 to 3½ grams daily),
-as a result of severe glomerular damage
Proteinuria can cause serious consequences including:
-edema,
-blood lipid abnormalities,
-blood coagulation disorders,
-infections
The average proteinuria is about ?? grams per day but may exceed ??grams daily in severe cases
-8
-30
The ?? attempts to compensate by increasing protein synthesis but is unable
to maintain normal plasma protein concentrations.
-liver
What plasma protein is the most abundant and is the protein with the most significant losses?
-albumin
hypoalbuminemia:
-low plasma albumin concentrations.
-albumin helps to maintain fluid balance within the blood;
-thus, low levels contribute to edema by shifting fluid from blood plasma to interstitial spaces
the nephrotic kidney tends to reabsorb ?? in greater amounts than usual, causing sodium and water retention within the body. this can also cause..
-sodium
-edema
Individuals with the nephrotic syndrome frequently have elevated levels of which lipoproteins?
-low-density lipoproteins (LDL),
-verylow-density lipoproteins (VLDL),
-atherogenic LDL variant known as lipoprotein(a).
deep vein thrombosis:
-formation of a stationary blood clot (thrombus) in a deep vein, usually in the leg, which causes inflammation, pain, and swelling, and is potentially fatal.
The nephrotic syndrome is associated with accelerated
?? and a sharply increased risk of heart disease and ??
-atherosclerosis
-stroke
The proteins lost in urine include:
-immunoglobulins (antibodies) and vitamin D–binding protein.
Depletion of immunoglobulins increases susceptibility to ?? .
-infection
Loss of vitamin D–binding protein results in lower vitamin D and ?? levels and increases the risk of ?? in children
-calcium
-rickets
If proteinuria continues, ?? and ?? may develop
-protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) and
-muscle wasting
Medical treatment of the nephrotic syndrome requires diagnosis and management of
the
-underlying disorder responsible for the proteinuria.
Complications of nephrotic syndrome are managed with ?? and ??
-medications
-nutrition therapy
The drugs prescribed may include:
-diuretics
-ACE inhibitors
-angiotensin receptor blockers (reduce protein losses)
-lipid lowering drugs
-NAIDS (crticosteriods)
-immunosuppressants (cyclosporine)
Nutrition therapy can help to prevent PEM, alleviate ?? , and correct ??
abnormalities.
-edema
-lipid
Why are high protein diets not recommended during nephrotic syndrome?
-they can increase urinary protein losses and result in further damage to the kidneys
the protein intake should fall between ?? and ?? gram per kilogram of body weight per day
-0.8 to 1.0
Dietary measures are usually ?? for controlling blood lipids, however, so physicians may prescribe ?? medications as well.
-inadequate
-lipid-lowering
Controlling sodium intake helps to control ?? ; therefore,
the sodium intake may be limited to ?? to ?? milligrams daily
-edema
-1000 to 2000
If diuretics prescribed for the edema cause ?? losses, patients are encouraged to select
foods rich in ??
-potassium
Multivitamin/mineral supplementation can help patients
avoid nutrient deficiencies; nutrients at risk include ?? and ??
-iron
-vitamin D.
acute kidney injury:
-the rapid decline of kidney function over a period of hours or days;
-potentially a cause of acute renal failure.
The loss of kidney function reduces ?? output and allows ?? wastes to build up in the blood
-urine
-nitrogenous
acute kidney injury is often ?? , although mortality rates are high, ranging from ?? to ?? percent in severe cases.
-reversible
-42 to 55%
Most cases of acute kidney injury develop in the ?? , occurring in
about 25 percent of patients undergoing ??
-hospital
-intensive care
Many different disorders can lead to acute kidney injury, and it often develops as a
consequence of ???, ??, and ??
-critical illness, sepsis, or major surgery.
To aid in diagnosis and treatment of acute kidney disorder, its
causes are classified as
-prerenal, intrarenal, or postrenal
Prerenal:
-60 to 70% of cases
-conditions that cause a severe reduction in blood flow to the kidneys such as low blood pressure/volume, renal artery disorders or heart disorders
Intrarenal:
-25 to 40% of cases
-factors that damage kidney tissue such as renal ischemia, renal injury, and obstructions within the kidney.
Postrenal:
-5 to 10% of cases
-factors that prevent urine excretion due to urinary tract obstructions, prostate disorders, renal vein thrombosis, bladder disorders, pregnancy.
A decline in renal function alters the composition of ?? and ?? .
-blood and urine
The kidneys become unable to regulate the levels of ?? , ?? , and ?? wastes in the blood
-electrolytes
-acid
-nitrogenous
Urine may be diminished in quantity (?? ) or absent (?? ), leading to fluid retention
-oliguria
-anuria
Acute kidney injury is often identified when the reduced urinary output is coupled with a
progressive rise in serum ?? levels.
-creatinine
Other laboratory findings may include abnormal
levels of serum electrolytes, ??, and various changes in
urine chemistry
-elevated blood urea nitrogen (BUN)
why is diagnosis sometimes difficult in acute kidney injury?
-clinical effects can be subtle and vary according to the underlying cause of disease
About one-half to two-thirds of patients with acute
kidney injury experience ?? , producing less than about ?? milliliters of urine per
day
-oliguria
-400
(normal urine volume is about ?? to ?? milliliters daily
-1000 to 1500
The reduced excretion of fluids and electrolytes leads to sodium retention and elevated levels of which minerals in the blood?
-potassium, phosphate, and magnesium
hyperkalemia:
-elevated serum potassium levels
-of most concern because potassium imbalances can alter heart rhythm and result in heart failure
hyperphosphatemia:
-elevated serum phosphate levels
-promote excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone which leads to losses of bone calcium
Due to the sodium retention and reduced urine production, ?? is a common symptom of acute kidney injury and may be apparent as ?? in the face and hands and ?? of the feet and ankles.
-edema
-puffiness
-swelling
uremia:`
-result of impaired kidney function
-the accumulation of nitrogenous and various other waste products in the blood
-“urine in the blood”