chapter 21 book notes Flashcards
Cardiovascular disease is responsible for what % of deaths in the U.S.?
-31%
Most common form of CVD?
-Coronary heart disease (42%)
Coronary heart disease is usually caused by…
-atherosclerosis in the coronary arteries that supple blood to the heart muscle.
If atherosclerosis restricts blood flow in these arteries, the
resulting deprivation of oxygen and nutrients can destroy heart tissue
and cause a ??
-myocardial infarction—a heart attack.
When the blood supply to brain tissue is blocked, a
?? occurs
-stroke
In atherosclerosis, the artery walls become progressively thickened due to an accumulation of
-plaque
- accumulation of fatty deposits, fibrous connective tissue, and smooth muscle cells,
The first lesions tend to occur in regions where the arteries…
-branch or bend due to the disturbed blood flow in those areas
The subtle damage elicits an ?? response, attracting immune cells and increasing the permeability of the artery wall
-inflammatory
what will slip under the artery’s thin layer of endothelial cells, become oxidized by
local enzymes, and accumulate?
-Low-density lipoproteins (LDL)
Atherosclerosis begins to develop as
early as ?? or ?? and typically progresses over
several decades before symptoms develop
-childhood
-adolescence
As atherosclerosis worsens, it may eventually ?? the lumen
of an artery and interfere with blood flow
-narrow
thrombosis:
- the formation or presence of a blood clot in blood vessels
A blood clot (??? ) may
enlarge in time and ultimately obstruct blood flow.
-thrombus
A portion of a clot can also break free (?? ) and travel through the
circulatory system until it lodges in a narrowed artery and shuts off blood flow to
the surrounding tissue leading to (??)
-embolus
-embolism (can lead to tissue death)
ischemia:
-most common complication of atherosclerosis
-inadequate blood supply within a tissue due to obstructed blood flow.
Atherosclerosis can affect almost any ?? or ?? in the body and, accordingly, is a major cause of ?? or ?? .
-organ or tissue
-disability or death
angina pectoris:
-ischemia in the heart muscle
-results in discomfort or dull chest pain
-The pain often radiates to the left shoulder, arms, neck, back, or jaw
peripheral artery disease:
-impaired blood flow in the arteries of the legs;
-may cause pain and weakness in the legs and feet, especially during exercise.
Atherosclerosis is the most common cause of an ?? —the abnormal dilation of a blood vessel.
-aneurysm
Plaque can ?? the blood vessel wall, and eventually the pressure of
blood flow can cause the ?? region to stretch and balloon outward
-weaken
-damaged
Aneurysms can rupture and lead to massive bleeding and ?? , particularly when a large vessel such as the ?? is affected.
-death
-aorta
In the arteries of the brain, an aneurysm may lead to
bleeding within the brain, ?? , or a ??.
-coma
-stroke
The factors that initiate atherosclerosis either cause direct damage to the artery wall or allow lipid materials to ?? its surface
-
-penetrate
Factors that generally worsen atherosclerosis or lead to complications are those that cause plaque ?? or blood ??
-rupture
-coagulation
The development of advanced atherosclerosis is a long-term process that involves:
-recurrent plaque rupture, thrombosis, and healing
Turbulent blood flow: WHERE does it occur? and what can it cause?
-occurs at the origins, branch points, and bent sections of arteries
-it can cause physical damage to endothelial tissue
Hypertension (high blood pressure) intensifies the damaging effects of blood flow on arteries, and is associated with ?? and ?? of the artery wall
-thickening and degeneration
very-low-density lipoproteins
(VLDL):
-lipoproteins that transport triglycerides from the liver to other tissues
-BAD
When LDL levels are high, they are actively taken up and
retained in susceptible regions in the artery wall, contributing to ?? development
-plaque
Elevated levels of very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) can also promote atherosclerosis, either by being retained within artery walls or by influencing the production of other ?? lipoproteins
-atherogenic
-able to initiate or promote atherosclerosis
high-density lipoproteins (HDL):
-lipoproteins that help to remove cholesterol from the bloodstream by
transporting it to the liver for reuse or disposal.
-GOOD
HDL contain proteins that inhibit…(3)
-inflammation, LDL oxidation, and plaque accumulation
Low HDL levels can contribute to the development of ?? as well.
-atherosclerosis
LDL vary in ?? and ??, and these LDL subtypes have differing effects on heart disease risk
-size and density
What kind of size and density of LDL promotes atherosclerosis more easily?
-smallest most dense LDL
-because they can slip into the walls easily
Furthermore, people who have small,
dense LDL frequently have elevated ?? and low ?? levels
-VLDL
-HDL
This lipoprotein profile is especially prevalent in individuals with ?? syndrome and type ?? diabetes
-metabolic
-2
lipoprotein(a):
-variant form of LDL
-has been found to speed the progression of atherosclerosis and raise the risk of various types of CVD
Lipoprotein(a) levels are primarily ?? determined and are influenced
to only a minor degree by ?? and ?? factors.
-genetically
-dietary and lifestyle
Compounds in cigarette smoke (including ?? ) are toxic to
endothelial cells and contribute to arterial injury and the development of…
-nicotine
-atherosclerosis
Chronic hyperglycemia leads to the accumulation of ???, which promotes ?? and ???
-advanced glycation end products (AGEs)
-inflammation and oxidative stress
As a person ages, arterial cells tend to ?? , and risk factors for
??? accumulate.
-degenerate
-CVD
The risk of atherosclerosis increases significantly with each additional ?? of adult life, although the incidence of obstructive artery disease occurs
?? to ?? years later in women than in men.
-decade
-7 to 10
After menopause, women’s risk increases, in part, because the decline in ?? has unfavorable effects on lipoprotein levels and endothelial function
-estrogen
homocysteine:
-amino acid produced during conversion of methionine to cysteine.
-elevated levels promote inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and thrombosis
-associated with aging and more prevalent in men.
In angina pectoris and heart attacks, pain or discomfort most often occurs
in the ?? region and may be perceived as a feeling of ?? , constriction, or ?? ;
-chest
-heaviness
-squezzing
In angina pectoris, the symptoms are often triggered by ?? and subside with ??
-exertion
-rest
in a heart attack, the pain may be severe, last longer, and occur without ??
-exertion
?? are more likely than men to have a heart condition
(or even a heart attack) that is ?? by chest pain or acute symptoms.
-Women
-unaccompanied
The American Heart Association (AHA) and American College of
Cardiology (ACC) recommend a review of CHD risk factors every ?? to ?? years in individuals who are older than ?? years of age
-4 to 6
-20
A typical lipoprotein profile (blood lipid profile) includes measures of:
-total cholesterol
-LDL cholesterol
-HDL cholesterol
-blood triglycerides (VLDL)
What ratios can clinicians use to help assess CHD risk?
-total cholesterol:HDL
-LDL cholesterol:HDL cholesterol
In some individuals (especially those with high blood triglycerides), the ?? cholesterol level may be a more appropriate indicator of heart disease risk than the ?? level;
-non-HDL
-LDL
How to calculate non-HDL cholesterol level
-subtract the HDL value from the total cholesterol value
What else is regularly included in risk assessment?
-blood pressure and body weight
Atherosclerosis can be evaluated using the coronary artery calcium score, which is…
-a value obtained from a compound tomography (CT) scan that analyzes the calcium content of plaque in the coronary arteries
What protein can also identify patients at risk for CHD, and is also a marker of inflammation?
-C-reactive protein
ankle-brachial index:
-a ratio of blood pressure measurements taken at the ankles and the upper arms,
-helps determine the presence or severity of peripheral artery disease.
Once a person’s level of risk has been identified, much of the treatment focuses on lowering ?? cholesterol
-LDL
Elevated LDL levels are directly related to the development of ?? , and clinical studies have confirmed that ?? treatments can successfully reduce the rates of cardiovascular events.
-atherosclerosis
-LDL-lowering
low HDL levels are usually associated with other CHD risk
factors, such as ?? , ?? , ?? , and ?? resistance.
-obesity
-smoking
-inactivity
-insulin
Although having adequate HDL is beneficial, high HDL levels do not necessarily confer additional ?? and in some cases may be associated with ?? outcomes.
-benefits
-adverse