Chapter 2: Models of Development Flashcards
Developmental science
considering the role of multiple contextual influences in the developmental process e.g. sex, ethnicity, social class, income, religion, culture
Niche-picking
proposal that genetic and environmental factors work together to influence the direction of a child’s life
Organismic model
inherited traits change over time occur through maturation in a stage/step-wise fashion
Mechanistic model
people’s behavior changes gradually over time, shaped by exposure to experiences that present learning opportunities and cause them to adapt to their environments
Interactionist model
complex interaction between genetics and environment to produce effects and that individual’s actively shape their own development
Principle of plasticity in development
course of development may be altered depending on the nature of the individual’s specific interactions in the environment, through active interventions like mental and physical exercise
Reciprocity in development
people both influence and are influenced by the events in their lives
Ecological perspective
defines 5 levels or systems of the environment that interact: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem
Microsystem
setting in which people have their daily interactions and have the most direct impact on the individual e.g. family, school, health services, religion, peers
Mesosystem
realm of the environment in which interactions take place among 2 or more microsystems
Exosystem
environments that people don’t closely experience on a regular basis but still impact them e.g. industry, social services, neighbors, local politics, mass media
Macrosystem
larger social institutions, from a country’s economy to its laws and social norms, that influence the individual indirectly through the exosystem
Chronosystem
changes that take place over time
Life course perspective
norms, roles, and attitudes about age have an impact on the course of each person’s life; development occurs along age-differentiated, socially marked sequence of transitions between life events and social roles
Social clock
expectations for the ages which society associates with major life events
Activity theory
older adults are most satisfied if they are able to remain involved in their social roles in work, family, and community
Disengagement theory
the normal and natural evolution of life causes older adults to intentionally loosen their social ties (e.g. retirement) to improve well-being
Continuity theory
people make adaptive choices to maintain internal and external ties to the past; whether disengagement or activity is beneficial to the older adult depends on the individual’s personality
Ageism
a set of beliefs, (implicit) attitudes, social institutions, and acts that denigrate individuals or groups based on their chronological age
Terror management theory
people regard the thought that their their lives will someday end with panic and dread, and engage in defense mechanisms
Modernization hypothesis
the increasing urbanization and industrialization of Western society causes adults to be devalued
Multiple jeopardy hypothesis
older individuals who fit in more than 1 category are affected by biases against each of these categorizations
Age-as-leveller view
as people become older, age overrides all other forms of discrimination (“isms”)
Inoculation hypothesis
older minorities and women have developed a tolerance or become immune to the effects of ageism through years of exposure to discrimination and stereotyping
Identity process theory
identity continues to change in adulthood in a dynamic manner
Identity
a set of schemas that a person holds about the self
Schemas
mental structures we use to understand the world
Identity assimilation
tendency to interpret new experiences in terms of existing identity, minimizing the impact of age-related change on the individual’s sense of self
Identity accomodation
people make changes in their identities in response to experiences that challenge their current views of themselves
Identity balance
dynamic equilibrium that occurs when people tend to view themselves consistently but can make changes when called for by experiences; leads to self-efficacy
Self-efficacy
a person’s feelings of competence at a particular task
Multiple threshold model
individuals realize they are getting older through a stepwise process as age-related changes occur; some thresholds matter more than others and not all will lead to accommodation/assimilation
Selective optimization with compensation model (SOC)
selecting which activities are of greatest importance, compensating for age-related changes, then optimizing performance of that activity; happens as gains decrease and losses increase
Genome
complete set of instructions for building all the cells that make up an organism, found in nuclei
Genome-wide association study
researchers search for genetic variations related to complex diseases by scanning the entire genome
Genome-wide linkage study
researchers study the families of people with specific psychological traits or disorders
Programmed aging theories
propose that aging and death are built into the hard-wiring of all organisms and are part of the genetic code
Gompertz function
plots the relationship between age and death rates for a given species
Replicative senescence
the loss of ability of cells to reproduce or divide as telomeres shorten
FOXO genes
group of genes that influence crucial cellular processes regulating stress resistance, metabolism, the cell cycle, and death of cells
What are the biological theories for aging?
programmed aging theories, metabolic theories
Evidence for programmed aging theories
the specific life spans of species and cell senescence
Cell senescence
irreversible arrest of cell proliferation or growth and division; can reduce risk of uncontrollable cellular growth in cancer
Hayflick limit or replicative senescence
cultured fetal cells can only reproduce or divide about 50 times
What do changes in senescent cells lead to?
thickening of artery walls, changes in skin, arthritic joints, degeneration of intervertebral disks, changes in heart muscles (cardiovascular disease), neurodegeneration (dementia, Alzheimer’s)
What causes cell senescence?
telomere shortening after repeated divisions over time
Telomerase
produced by certain cells (e.g. fetal cells, adult germ cells, cancer cells) that can lengthen telomeres, slowing or stopping the cellular aging process
Metabolic theories
organism’s metabolism is related to its longevity and have a finite amount of energy to expend in a lifetime
Evidence for metabolic theories
caloric restriction studies in non-humans and humans (restricting calories leads to decreased risk of morbidity)
Biomarkers of longevity from caloric restriction
lower levels of fasting insulin, lower core body temperature (metabolism), less DNA fragmentation
Psychological theories of aging
identity process theory, selective optimization with compensation model, ageism
Sociocultural theories of aging
first generation (disengagement and activity theories), second generation (continuity theory, life course perspective, bronfenbrenner’s ecological perspective), third generation (social structures)
Criticisms for disengagement theory
(1) disengagement is not always voluntary, inevitable, or universal (2) concept of disengagement is broad (3) research focuses on individual, not society (4) ignores feelings and thoughts of individual (5) difficult to disconfirm (6) justification for ageism
Primary findings of activity theory
social and productive activities are positively related to greater happiness, better functioning, and lower mortality while solitary activities are only related to greater happiness
Criticisms for activity theory
(1) roles/activities carry different meanings for individuals (2) operational definition of activity (3) assumes that psychological and social needs remain constant throughout adulthood (4) assumes that individuals have high control over their social situation
Criticisms for continuity theory
assumes that everyone ages continually (ignores chronic illness) and ignores the impact of social structures on aging
3 measures of time in life course perspective
life time (age), historical time, social time
4 key principles in life course perspective
(1) life course is shaped by geographical and historical placement (2) impact of an event depends on when it occurs in someone’s life (3) lives are linked (4) life course is controlled within constraints and opportunities provided by history and social circumstance
4 features of life course perspective
multidirectionality (maintain/grow/decline), plasticity, historical and cultural context, multiple causation
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological perspective
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem surrounding the individual
