Chapter 2 - Definitions only Flashcards
define complexity:
the brain is nearly infinitely complex.
it is responsible for producing thoughts, feelings, actions that are core to psychological concerns.
define variability:
no two people ever say, do, think, feel exactly the same thing under the same conditions.
people are uniquely different from each other.
define reactivity:
people often react differently when they are being watched rather than now being watched
human behavior changes from one context to another.
empirical method:
set of rules & techniques for observation.
define empiricism:
forms basis of modern science.
“I need to test this idea!”
define dogmatism:
belief based on faith.
“I just know”
what’s the difference between empiricism and dogmatism?
empiricism is belief based on science; dogmatism is belief based on faith.
what was the original word for anxiety disorders?
hysteria; “wondering womb”
what is the scientific method?
a method for learning about reality through systematic observation and experimentation
what is objectivity? (scientific method)
the practice of basing conclusions on facts without the influence of personal emotion or bias.
what are 3 things that make people hard to study?
complexity, variability, reactivity
define variable and give an example:
any measurable condition, event, characteristic, or behavior observed or controlled in a study.
ex. heart rate of a person.
define operational definition:
specify how the variables are measured or manipulated in a study.
define measure (scale/instrument) and give an example:
method for identifying a variable’s quantity.
ex. temperature!
define data and give an example:
all measurements on a variable. careful objective observations or numerical measurements of a phenomenon.
ex. heights given by people.
define hypothesis:
proposed explanation for a situation, an educated guess about variables or the relationship between variables in a study. (BEFORE STUDY).
define theory and give an example:
system of interrelated ideas that explains a set of observations. theories will evolve over time as hypothesis prove or disprove certain aspects of the theory.
ex. theory of relativity.
define replication:
repeating the method of a study and collecting comparable data found in the original study.
define case study:
an in-depth analysis of ONE person, examining their psychological characteristics in detail.
Why would you ever do a case study?
When variable you’re studying is so rare that almost no one else has that variable.
ex. serial killers! They aren’t that many in a given moment :)
define population:
large group of people you want the study to apply to.
define sampling:
group of participants in a single study.
What is the Law of Large Numbers?
the large the size of sample, the more accurate it represents the population.
What’s the difference between population and sampling?
A sampling is just PART of a population that is being studied.
How does the Law of Large Numbers relate to population and sampling?
When taking samples of a population, the large the sample, the better it represents the population.
What is the difference between range and std. deviation?
Range is just max minus min. Std. deviation is different in that it’s how close individual scores cluster around the mean.
What’s the difference between mean and mode?
Mean is the average and mode is the most frequent score…
What is frequency distribution and what does it represent?
graphic representation of all measurements of one variable in a sample.
What is reliability? What is validity? How are they different?
Reliability = consistency! Validity = accuracy!
Give an example of reliability:
ex. weighing yourself is reliable. If it gives 130 then 240, that’s not reliable.
ex. older MRI scans weren’t reliable.
Give an example of validity:
ex. sticking a thermometer inside mouth to weigh yourself is NOT VALID.
ex. someone thought more body fat meant more depressed, but that’s NOT VALID.
What is response bias?
tendency to respond a particular way regardless of their actual knowledge or beliefs.
What is sampling bias?
occurs when the participants or items are not chosen at random but instead are selected so that an attribute is over-presented or underrepresented.
What are experimenter expectancy effects?
occur when an investigator’s expectations lead them (consciously or unconsciously) to treat participants in a way that encourages them to produce the expected results.
What is naturalistic observation and how does that reduce bias?
a method of gathering scientific knowledge by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments (in-depth study of a phenomenon in its natural setting).
ex. person watching at stoplight.
List five (5) ways you can reduce bias:
- Naturalistic observation
- Anonymous surveys
- Deception
- Reflexes
- Random sampling
what is random sampling?
it is a technique for choosing participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
what are anonymous surveys?
surveys that don’t tie identifying information with your responses.
what are reflexes?
automatic responses from your body (knee tap, heart rate)
what is deception?
lying about what is being studied to reduce response bias.
define double-blind design:
the participant is “blind” to (unaware of) the predictions of the study and the experimenter is “blind” to the group to which the participant is assigned or the condition that the participant is receiving.
list advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation:
advantage: reduce response bias.
disadvantage: can only study public areas, only behavior not mind.
list advantages and disadvantages of surveys:
advantages: lots of data, on lots of variables, quickly and easily.
disadvantages: surveys are prone to every form of bias.
define correlation and give an example:
changes in the measurements of one variable are accompanied by changes in the measurements of another variable.
ex: age and health.
ex. height and weight.
ex. attendance and exam grades.
Give advantages and disadvantages of correlation:
advantages:
show mathematical relationship between variables.
do not require a lab environment.
can use correlation to make predictions.
disadvantages: correlation is NOT causation.
What is strength?
The closer the correlation is to +1.0 or –1.0, the stronger the relationship.
What is direction?
Positive or negative aspect of strength for correlation.
Describe what confound is:
other possible variables involved in the study (but not measured) that vary along with one or both variables in a study and could be the actual basis for measured changes between variables.
What is a Third-variable problem?
variables that are causally related are correlated but not all variables that are correlated are causally related.
What is an experiment?
manipulation of one variable in controlled conditions so that another variable can be observed.
What are the advantages of disadvantages of experiments?
advantages:
gold standard of science.
prove cause and effect relationships.
disadvantages:
need to be done in lab conditions.
require more tech, equipment, money.
certain relationships between variables that you cannot do experiments on for ethical or practical reasons.
Describe what manipulation is!
a characteristic of experimentation in which the researcher artificially creates a pattern of variation in an independent variable in order to determine its causal powers.
What is idea pseudopsychology close to?
dogmatism! “I just know.”
What is the difference between informed consent and debriefing?
informed consent: informing on a patient on what they will be asked to do BEFORE formally agreeing to do the study.
debriefing: interviewed AFTER the study about their experience.
ALWAYS tie cause and effect with ______:
experiments!
if asked about relationships with two or more variables:
look into the moral aspect.
if a study IS moral:
do the experiment!
if a study is NOT moral:
don’t do an experiment, do a correlation study (surveys and stuff).
