Chapter 2

Question 1

4 Primary goals

Answer 1

Description, Prediction, Control, Explanation

Question 2

Description

Answer 2

What is the problem/phenomenon

Question 3

Prediction

Answer 3

What/When will the phenomenon occur

Question 4

Control

Answer 4

What causes the phenomenon to occur

Question 5

Explanation

Answer 5

Explain why the phenomenon occurs

Question 6

Critical thinking steps

Answer 6

Step 1 - Question information ex) where is the evidence from, is it biased, definitions
Step 2 - Source information ex) Did the author directly tell you, Scientific or conjecture, scholarly journals

Question 7

Data

Answer 7

Measurable outcomes of research studies

Question 8

Research

Answer 8

careful collection of data

Question 9

Scientific Method

Answer 9

step 1 - form a hypothesis, step 2 - conduct a lit review, step 3 - design a study, step 4 - conduct the study, step 5 - analyze the data, step 6 - report findings whether hypothesis is correct or not, step 7 - repeat for replication

Question 10

Theory

Answer 10

Tested explanations or models of how a phenomenon works

Question 11

Hypothesis

Answer 11

A specific, testable prediction, narrower than the theory it is based on

Question 12

Replication

Answer 12

The repetition of a study and getting similar results

Question 13

A Good theory

Answer 13

is falsifiable, simpler, can produce testable hypotheses

Question 14

Occam’s razor/Law of Parsimony

Answer 14

The simpler the explanation is likely the most accurate

Question 15

Serendipity

Answer 15

Unexpected findings that can be applied to alternative scenarios and situations for major breakthroughs if one continues their research

Question 16

Descriptive study

Answer 16

observing behavior to describe it objectively and systematically
case studies, observation and self-report methods
+ describe phenomena, predict
- cannot achieve control, cannot arrive at explanation

Question 17

Correlational study

Answer 17

describe and predict relationships between variables and the real world

Question 18

Experiments

Answer 18

manipulate a variable for group A and leave the variable natural for group B, the dependent variable will then be measured between the groups to establish a causational relationship

Question 19

Random sampling

Answer 19

picking a sample from your population completely at random
-may not meet correct demographic percentages

Question 20

Random assignment

Answer 20

gives each member of demographics an equal chance to be chosen

Question 21

Convenience sample

Answer 21

easiest sample to access for study

Question 22

Margin of error

Answer 22

the percentage that the results from your experiment could be inaccurate, lower margin of error = more reliable results

Question 23

Participant observation

Answer 23

qualitative research method in which the researcher observes members of the group or community being researched and participates with them in their activities

Question 24

Reactivity

Answer 24

a phenomenon that occurs when individuals alter their performance or behavior due to the awareness that they are being observed

Question 25

Negative Correlation

Answer 25

When one variable increase the other decreases

Question 26

Confound

Answer 26

factors other than the independent variable that may cause a result

Question 27

Operational definition

Answer 27

describes behavior so that it is observable and measurable

Question 28

Descriptive research

Answer 28

methods focus on the who, what, and where, versus the why or how.

Question 29

case study

Answer 29

descriptive research approach to obtain an in-depth analysis of a person, group, or phenomenon

Question 30

Naturalistic Observation

Answer 30

qualitative research method where you record the behaviors of your research subjects in real world settings. avoid interfering in any way

Question 31

experimenter expectancy bias

Answer 31

expectations of the experimenter as to the likely outcome of the experiment acts as a self-fulfilling prophecy, biasing the results in the direction of the expectation (mice maze example)

Question 32

Population

Answer 32

represents the larger population from which a sample is drawn.

Question 33

Directionality problem

Answer 33

problem of knowing whether two variables, X and Y, are statistically related because X causes Y or because Y causes X

Question 34

Culturally sensitive research

Answer 34

integrating cultural beliefs, characteristics, attitudes, values, traditions, experiences, and norms of a target population into research design, implementation, evaluation, and materials

Question 35

Observer bias

Answer 35

any kind of systematic discrepancy from the truth during the process of observing and recording information for a study, for example, in the assessment of medical images, one observer might record an abnormality but another might not, or one might round during calculations and one might not

Question 36

Self-report methods

Answer 36

A self-report is any method which involves asking a participant about their feelings, attitudes, beliefs and so on, may not be truthful but easy and mass effective

Question 37

Zero correlation

Answer 37

The variables do not affect each other

Question 38

Correlational studies

Answer 38

a type of research design that looks at the relationships between two or more variables

Question 39

Positive correlation

Answer 39

When one variable increases or decreases, so does the other

Question 40

Third variable problem

Answer 40

a confounding variable affects both variables to make them seem causally related when they are not (ex. z increases both x and y without one knowing)

Question 41

selection bias

Answer 41

a distortion in a measure of association (such as a risk ratio) due to a sample selection that does not accurately reflect the target population (ex Health studies that recruit participants directly from clinics miss all the cases who don't attend those clinics or seek care during the study)

Question 42

coding

Answer 42

the way information is transformed into a format that can be stored and retrieved from memory

Question 43

Interviews

Answer 43

gain more depth of understanding but still could be unreliable

Question 44

Institutional review boards (IRB's)

Answer 44

an administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects recruited to participate in research activities conducted under the eyes of the institution with which it is affiliated

Question 45

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

Answer 45

All use of non-human vertebrate animals for research and teaching purposes must be approved in advance by the ___ (harsher than IRB's usually with rules)

Question 46

Risk/benefit ratio

Answer 46

whether the risk the participant has is worth the reward for science n(has to be determined and approved by IRB)

Question 47

Confidentiality

Answer 47

not sharing private information with public

Question 48

Anonimity

Answer 48

not sharing private information with the researchers

Question 49

Knowledge of research

Answer 49

if the studies require participants to know if they are being observed or not

Question 50

Risks

Answer 50

should be disclosed before research starts

Question 51

Informed consent

Answer 51

must be aware of potential risks before test, if testing with deception then must be have a debrief following the test

Question 52

Access to data

Answer 52

limit amount collected and if confidentiality ensured then participants much more likely to share

Question 53

Construct validity

Answer 53

how well a test measures the concept it was designed to evaluate ex if an intelligence test measures intelligence and not something else (like memory), then we can say this test has construct validity.

Question 54

internal validity

Answer 54

the degree of confidence that the causal relationship being tested is trustworthy and not influenced by other factors or variables

Question 55

external validity

Answer 55

refers to the extent to which results from a study can be applied (generalized) to other situations, groups, or events

Question 56

reliability

Answer 56

consistency of the findings or results of a psychology research study

Question 57

standard deviation

Answer 57

a measure of dispersion or scatter in a data set relative to the data's central mean value

Question 58

accuracy

Answer 58

the degree of agreement between an observation or measurement and the true or actual value

Question 59

descriptive statistics

Answer 59

used to organize or summarize a set of data. Examples include percentages, measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode), measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation, variance), and correlation coefficients

Question 60

scatterplot

Answer 60

used to present relationships between quantitative variables when the variable on the x-axis (typically the independent variable) has a large number of levels

Question 61

central tendency

Answer 61

a statistic that identifies a single value as representative of the entire distribution of data (mean, median, and mode)

Question 62

correlation coefficient

Answer 62

a statistic that is used to estimate the degree of linear relationship between two variables

Question 63

inferential statistics

Answer 63

The process of using a random sample to draw conclusions about a population is called statistical inference. If we do not have a random sample, then sampling bias can invalidate our statistical results

Question 64

meta analysis

Answer 64

the statistical combination of results from two or more separate studies

Question 65

unsystematic errors

Answer 65

Random error has no pattern easier to average out and less problematic

Question 66

systematic errors

Answer 66

an error which, in the course of a number of measurements carried out under the same conditions of a given value and quantity, either remains constant in absolute value and sign, or varies according to definite law with changing conditions