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Chapter 2 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Two important aspects of homeostasis

A

1 maintaining the proper assortment and quantity of thousands of different chemicals in the body

2 monitoring the interactions of those chemicals with one another

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2
Q

The chemical level of organization

A

Is the lowest most basic level of structural organization

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3
Q

Water accounts for

A

2/3 of your body weight

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4
Q

What are the three states of matter

A

Solid
Liquid
Gas

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5
Q

Solids

A

Are compact and have a definite shape and volume

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6
Q

Chemistry

A

The science of the structure and interactions of matter

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7
Q

Matter

A

Anything that occupies space and has mass

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8
Q

Mass

A

The amount of matter in any object

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9
Q

Weight

A

The force of gravity acting on matter

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10
Q

Liquids

A

Have a definite volume and assume the shape of their container

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11
Q

Gasses

A

Do not have a definite shape or volume

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12
Q

All forms of matter are made up of a limited number of building blocks called

A

Elements

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13
Q

Element

A

A substance that cannot be split into a simpler substance by ordinary chemical means

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14
Q

How many elements do scientists recognize

A

118

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15
Q

How many elements occur naturally on earth

A

92

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16
Q

Define Chemical symbol

A

One or two letters of the elements name in English Latin or another language

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17
Q

How many elements are normally present in your body

A

26

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18
Q

The major elements

A

Four elements that amount to 96% of your body’s mass

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19
Q

What are the major elements found in the body

A

Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen

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20
Q

Lesser elements in the human body account for

A

3.6 percent of body mass

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21
Q

How many lesser elements are there in the human body

A

8

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22
Q

What are the lesser elements in the human body

A

Calcium
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sulfur
Sodium
Chlorine
Magnesium
Iron

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23
Q

Trace elements

A

14 elements that are present in tiny amounts in the body that make up about .4 percent of your body mass

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24
Q

About what percentage of body mass is oxygen

A

65 percent

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25
Q

What is the significance of oxygen to the body

A

It is part of water and many organic molecules

It is used to generate ATP

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26
Q

What is ATP

A

A molecule used by cells to temporarily store chemical energy

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27
Q

What percentage of body mass is carbon

A

18.5 percent

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28
Q

What is the significance of carbon in the body

A

Forms backbone chains and rings of all organic molecules

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29
Q

What percentage of body mass is hydrogen

A

About 9.5 percent

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30
Q

What is the significance of hydrogen in the body

A

Constituent of water and most organic molecules the ionized for of hydrogen makes body fluids more acidic

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31
Q

What percentage of body mass is nitrogen

A

3.2 percent

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32
Q

What is the significance of nitrogen in the body

A

It is a component of all proteins and nucleic acids

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33
Q

What percentage of body weight is calcium

A

1.5 percent

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34
Q

What is the significance of calcium in the body

A

Contributes to hardness of bones and teeth, ionized form is needed for blood clotting, release of some hormones, contraction of muscles, and many other processes

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35
Q

What percentage of body weight is phosphorus

A

1 percent

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36
Q

What is the significance of phosphorus in the body

A

It is a component of nucleic acids and ATP, it is required for normal bone and tooth structure

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37
Q

What percentage of body mass is potassium

A

.35 percent

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38
Q

What is the significance of potassium in the body

A

Ionized form is the most plentiful cation in intracellular fluid, needed to generate action potentials

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39
Q

What percentage of body mass is sulfur

A

.25 percent

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40
Q

What is the significance of sulfur in the body

A

Component of some vitamins and many proteins

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41
Q

What percentage of body mass is sodium

A

.2 percent

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42
Q

What is the significance of sodium in the body

A

Ionized form is the most plentiful cation in ECF, essential for maintaining water balance, needed to generate action potentials.

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43
Q

What percentage of body mass is chlorine

A

.2 percent

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44
Q

What is the significance of chlorine in the body

A

Ionized form is the most plentiful anion in ECF, essential for maintaining water balance

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45
Q

What percentage of body mass is magnesium

A

.1 percent

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46
Q

What is the significance of magnesium in the body

A

Ionized form is needed for action of many enzymes

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47
Q

What percentage of body mass is iron

A

.005 percent

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48
Q

What is the significance of iron in the body

A

Ionized forms are part of hemoglobin and some enzymes

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49
Q

What are the trace elements in the body

A

Aluminum
Boron
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Fluorine
Iodine
Manganese
Molybdenum
Selenium
Silicon
Tin
Vanadium
Zinc

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50
Q

All matter is made up of

A

Atoms

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51
Q

Define atom

A

The smallest units of matter that retain the properties and characteristics of an element

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52
Q

Hydrogen atoms have a diameter of

A

Less than one nanometer

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53
Q

Atoms are composed of

A

Subatomic particles

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54
Q

What are the three important subatomic particles

A

Protons
Neutrons
Electrons

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55
Q

Define atomic nucleus

A

The dense central core of an atom

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56
Q

What is the atomic nucleus made of and what are their associated charges

A

Protons positive charge

Neutrons no charge

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57
Q

Where are the negatively charged electrons located

A

In a negatively charged cloud surrounding the nucleus

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58
Q

Electrons do not orbit

A

In a fixed path

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59
Q

Electron shells

A

Regions surrounding the nucleus of an atom which is the general place where electrons would be predictably found

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60
Q

The first electron shell never holds more than

A

2 electrons

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61
Q

The second electron shell holds up to

A

8 electrons

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62
Q

The third electron shell can hold up to

A

18 electrons

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63
Q

The electron shells fill with electrons

A

In a certain order starting with the first shell

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64
Q

The element with the most electrons in the body which is also the most massive element in the body

A

Iodine

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65
Q

The total charge of a normal atom is zero

A
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66
Q

The number of protons and neutrons in an atom are always

A

The same

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67
Q

Atomic number

A

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

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68
Q

Atoms of different elements always have different

A

Atomic numbers because they have a different number of protons

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69
Q

Define mass number

A

The sum of an atoms protons and neutrons

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70
Q

The mass number may be different from the atomic number because

A

There could be a different number of neutrons than number of protons

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71
Q

Define isotope

A

Atoms of an element that have a different number of neutrons and therefore different mass numbers

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72
Q

Most isotopes are

A

Stable

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73
Q

What does it mean that most isotopes are stable

A

Their nuclear structures do not change over time

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74
Q

The number of electrons in an atom determine

A

The chemical properties of an atom

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75
Q

Since different isotopes of the same element still have the same amount of electrons

A

They all have the same properties

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76
Q

Define Radioactive isotopes

A

They are unstable their nuclei decay into a stable configuration

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77
Q

As radioisotopes decay they emit

A

Radiation

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78
Q

During radioactive decay isotopes often

A

Change into different elements

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79
Q

Define the half life of an isotope

A

The amount of time for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample of that isotope to decay into a more stable form

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80
Q

Radioactive isotopes can have

A

Harmful or helpful effects

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81
Q

The radiation caused by various isotopes can unfortunately

A

Can break apart molecules causing tissue damage or cancer

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82
Q

Radioisotopes are used beneficially for humans by

A

Using them in medical imaging to diagnose certain disorders

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83
Q

Define tracers

A

Radioisotopes used to follow the movement of certain substances through the body

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84
Q

Define Dalton

A

The standard unit for measuring the mass of atoms and their subatomic particles

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85
Q

Daltons are also known as

A

Atomic mass units

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86
Q

A neutron has a mass of

A

1.008 daltons

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87
Q

A proton has a mass of

A

1.007 daltons

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88
Q

What is the mass of an electron

A

.0005 daltons which is 2000 times smaller than neutrons or protons

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89
Q

Define atomic mass or atomic weight

A

The average mass of all naturally occurring isotopes of an element

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90
Q

The atomic mass is typical close to the

A

Mass number of the elements most abundant isotope

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91
Q

In order to maintain stability atoms have a characteristic way of

A

Losing gaining or sharing electrons

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92
Q

Since electrons behave the way they do they enable the atoms in the body to behave as _______ or join to form______

A

Electrically charged forms called ions

Complex combinations called molecules

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93
Q

If an atom gives up or gains an electron

A

It becomes an ion

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94
Q

Define ion

A

A particle that has a positive or negative charge because of the unequal number of protons and electrons

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95
Q

Define ionization

A

The process of giving up or gaining electrons

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96
Q

An ion of an atom is symbolized by writing

A

The chemical symbol followed by the number of positive or negative charges

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97
Q

Define molecule

A

A particle in which two or more atoms share electrons

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98
Q

Define molecular formula

A

An indication of the elements and the number of atoms of each element that make up a molecule

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99
Q

In H2O

A

One atom of oxygen shares electrons with two hydrogen atoms

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100
Q

Define compound

A

A substance that contains atoms of two or more different elements

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101
Q

Most atoms in the body

A

Are joined into compounds

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102
Q

The oxygen molecule O2 is not a compound because

A

It only consists of atoms of one element

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103
Q

Define free radical

A

An atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron in the outermost shell

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104
Q

Having an unpaired electron makes free radicals

A

Unstable, highly reactive, and destructive to surrounding molecules

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105
Q

Free radicals become stable by

A

Giving up the unpaired electron to or taking an electron from another molecule

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106
Q

When free radicals give up or gain electrons

A

They may break apart important body molecules

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107
Q

Sources of free radicals include

A

Exposure to UV rays of sunlight
Exposure to X-rays
Ozone
Cigarette smoke
Air pollutants
Normal metabolic processes

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108
Q

Disorders and diseases associated with free radicals include

A

Cancer
Atherosclerosis
Alzheimer’s disease
Emphysema
Diabetes mellitus
Cataracts
Macular degeneration
Rheumatoid arthritis

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109
Q

Define Antioxidants

A

Substances that inactivate oxygen derived free radicals

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110
Q

Define chemical bonds

A

The forces that hold together atoms of a molecule

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111
Q

Define valence shell

A

The outer most shell of an atom

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112
Q

The number of atoms in the valence shell determines

A

The likelihood of that atom to form chemical bonds

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113
Q

Atoms with a full valence shell

A

Are chemically stable an unlikely to bond with other atoms

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114
Q

The atoms of most biologically important elements

A

Do not have eight electrons in their valence shell

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115
Q

What is the octet rule

A

Under the right conditions two or more atoms can interact in ways that produce a chemically stable arrangement of eight valence electrons for each atom

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116
Q

The octet rule explains

A

Why atoms behave in predictable ways

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117
Q

One atom is more likely to interact with another atom if

A

Doing so will leave both with eight valence electrons

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118
Q

Three types of chemical bonds

A

Ionic
Covalent
Hydrogen

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119
Q

Positive and negative electrons

A

Are attracted to one another

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120
Q

Define ionic bond

A

The force of attraction that holds ions with opposite charges together

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121
Q

Define cation

A

A positively charged ion

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122
Q

Define anion

A

A negatively charged ion

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123
Q

Name the common cations in the body with their symbols

A

Hydrogen ion H+
Sodium ion Na+
Potassium ion K+
Ammonium ion NH4+
Magnesium ion Mg^2+
Calcium ion is Ca^2+
Iron 2 ion Fe^2+
Iron 3 ion Fe^3+

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124
Q

What are the common anions in the body what are their symbols

A

Fluoride ion F-
Chloride ion Cl-
Iodide ion I-
Hydroxide ion OH-
Bicarbonate ion HCO3-
Oxide ion O^2-
Sulfate ion SO4^2-
Phosphate ion PO4^3-

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125
Q

In general ionic compounds exist

A

As solids with an orderly repeating arrangement of the ions

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126
Q

Though the number of ions can vary in an ionic bond but

A

The ratio is the same

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127
Q

Ionic bonds in the body are mainly found

A

In teeth and bones

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128
Q

Define electrolyte

A

An ionic compound that breaks apart into positive and negative ions

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129
Q

Most ions in the body

A

Are dissolved in body fluids as electrolytes

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130
Q

Why are electrolytes called electrolytes

A

Because their solutions can conduct an electric current

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131
Q

Define covalent bond

A

A bond where two or more atoms share electrons rather than gaining or losing them

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132
Q

The larger number of electron pairs that are shared in a covalent bond

A

The the stronger the bond

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133
Q

Most of the chemical bonds in the body are

A

Covalent bonds

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134
Q

The compounds formed by covalent bonds

A

Make up most of the body’s structures

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135
Q

A single covalent bond results

A

When two atoms share one electron pair

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136
Q

A double covalent bond results when

A

Two electron pairs are shared by two atoms

137
Q

A triple covalent bond results when

A

3 electron pairs are shared by two atoms

138
Q

In covariant bonds the number of lines between the chemical signals represent

A

Whether the bond is single double or triple

139
Q

Define nonpolar covalent bond

A

Where two atoms share electrons equally and one atom does not attract the electrons more strongly than the other

140
Q

The bonds between two identical atoms are always

A

Nonpolar covalent bonds

141
Q

The bonds between hydrogen and carbon are always

A

Nonpolar covalent bonds

142
Q

In a polar covalent bond

A

The sharing of electrons between two atoms is unequal because the nucleus of one atom attracts the shared electrons more strongly than the nucleus of the other atom

143
Q

When a polar covalent bond forms

A

The resulting molecule has a partial negative charge near the atom that affects the electrons more strongly

144
Q

What is electro negativity

A

The power to attract electrons to itself

145
Q

In a nonpolar covalent bond at least one atom will be

A

Partially positive

146
Q

What are some polar covalent bonds

A

Hydrogen and oxygen
Oxygen and carbon
Nitrogen and hydrogen

147
Q

A hydrogen bond forms when

A

A hydrogen atom with a partial positive charge attracts the partial negative charge of neighboring electronegative atoms, most often larger oxygen or nitrogen atoms.

148
Q

Hydrogen bonds result from a

A

ttraction of oppositely charged parts of molecules

149
Q

Hydrogen bonds are

A

Weak compared to ionic and covalent bonds

150
Q

Hydrogen bonds are so weak that

A

They cannot bind atoms into molecules

151
Q

Hydrogen bonds establish

A

Important links between molecules or different parts of a large molecule

152
Q

Define cohesion

A

The tendency of like particles to stick together

153
Q

Define surface tension

A

A measure of the difficulty of stretching or breaking the surface of a liquid

154
Q

The high surface tension of water is caused by

A

A high level of Cohesion in water which is caused by the links of hydrogen bonds

155
Q

Waters surface tension is very high because

A

The atoms in the water are more attracted to one another than to the atoms in the air above the water

156
Q

Acting collectively thousands of hydrogen bonds can

A

Provide considerable strength and stability and help determine the shape of large molecules

157
Q

Both Before and after every chemical reaction

A

The number of atoms in each element is the same

158
Q

A chemical reaction occurs when

A

New bonds form or old bonds break between atoms

159
Q

The foundation of all chemical reactions

A

Interactions between valence electrons

160
Q

Define reactants

A

The starting substance of a chemical reaction

161
Q

Define products

A

The ending substances of a chemical reaction

162
Q

In a chemical reaction the mass of the reactants equals

A

The mass of the products

163
Q

Since during a chemical reaction the atoms become rearranged

A

The products have different chemical properties

164
Q

Define metabolism

A

All of the chemical reactions that occur in the body

165
Q

Each chemical reaction involves

A

Energy changes

166
Q

Define energy

A

The capacity to do work

167
Q

What are the two principal forms of energy

A

Potential and kinetic

168
Q

What is chemical energy

A

A form of potential energy that is stored in the bonds of compounds and molecules

169
Q

What is the law of conservation of energy

A

Although energy can neither be created or destroyed it can be converted from one form into another

170
Q

Some of the chemical energy in the foods we eat

A

Are converted into kinetic energy when we do work

171
Q

Conversion of energy from one form to another typically produces

A

Heat which is also used to maintain normal body temperature

172
Q

Chemical bonds represent

A

Stored chemical energy

173
Q

What is an exergonic reaction

A

A reaction that releases more energy than it absorbs

174
Q

Overall a chemical reaction can either

A

Release energy or absorb energy

175
Q

Define endergonic reaction

A

A reaction that absorbs more energy than it releases

176
Q

Energy released from an exergonic reaction

A

Is often used to drive an endergonic one

177
Q

In general, exergonic reactions occur

A

As nutrients are broken down

178
Q

Energy broken down into ATP is usually used to drive

A

Endergonic reactions needed for the building of body structures

179
Q

Energy in ATP is sometimes used to

A

Do mechanical work like contraction of muscle or moving substances into or out of cells

180
Q

Since particles of matter have kinetic energy

A

They are constantly colliding with one another

181
Q

Collisions of particles can affect the movement of

A

Valence electrons causing bonds to break or form

182
Q

What is activation energy

A

The collision energy needed to break the chemical bonds of reactants

183
Q

As bonds are broken and new bonds are formed

A

Energy is released into the surroundings

184
Q

Two factors that can influence whether a chemical reaction will occur

A

Concentration
Temperature

185
Q

How does Concentration of particles affect the potential that a reaction will occur

A

The more particles packed into a confined space the more likely they are to collide with one another

186
Q

How does temperature affect the likelihood of reactions to occur

A

The higher the temperature the faster the particles move which means they will collide with more force and will be more likely to produce a reaction

187
Q

Why does the body use catalysts

A

Normal body temperature is far too low for most of the chemical reactions needed to maintain life so I order to solve this problem the body uses catalysts to lower the activation energy required for reactions.

188
Q

Define catalyst

A

A chemical compound that lowers the activation energy needed for a reaction

189
Q

The most important catalysts in the body are

A

Enzymes

190
Q

Although a catalyst does not affect the potential energy of the reactants it does

A

Lower the amount of energy needed to start the reaction

191
Q

In order for a reaction to occur not only must particles collide with adequate force they must also

A

Collide at precise spots

192
Q

Catalysts help reactions by

A

Properly orienting reactants so that they collide in the right position

193
Q

Although a catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction

A

The catalyst itself remains unchanged throughout the reaction thus a single catalyst molecule can assist one chemical reaction after another

194
Q

Define a synthesis reaction

A

When two or more particles combine to form new and larger molecules

195
Q

What does synthesis mean

A

To put together

196
Q

Define anabolism

A

All of the synthesis reactions in the body

197
Q

Anabolic reactions are usually

A

Endergonic

198
Q

Decomposition reactions

A

Split up larger molecules into smaller molecules or ions or atoms

199
Q

Define catabolism

A

All of the decomposition reactions that occur in the body

200
Q

Catabolic reactions are usually

A

Exergonic

201
Q

In exchange reactions

A

Some molecules break and new molecules are formed so both decomposition and synthesis reactions are both involved in the same reaction

202
Q

In a reversible reaction

A

The products can revert back to the original reactants

203
Q

A reversible reaction is indicated by

A

Two half arrows pointing in opposite directions

204
Q

Some reactions are reversible

A

Only under certain conditions

205
Q

If a reaction is only reversible under certain conditions

A

It is written above or below the arrow to indicate what condition is necessary

206
Q

Many of the reversible reactions in the body require

A

Catalysts called enzymes

207
Q

Oxidation reduction reactions are necessary to life because

A

They are involved in breaking down food molecules to produce energy

208
Q

Oxidation reduction reactions are concerned with

A

The transfer of electrons between atoms and molecules

209
Q

Oxidation refers to

A

The loss of electrons in the process the oxidized substance releases energy

210
Q

Reduction refers to

A

The gain of electrons in the process the reduced substance gains energy

211
Q

Oxidation reduction reactions are always parallel which means

A

When one substance is oxidized another is reduced at the same time

212
Q

When a food molecule is oxidized

A

The energy produced is used by a cell to carry out its functions

213
Q

Most of the chemicals in the body exist as

A

Compounds

214
Q

Inorganic compounds

A

Usually lack carbon and are structurally simple their molecules only have a small number of atoms and can’t be used by cells for complicated functions.

215
Q

What kinds of bonds make up inorganic compounds

A

Ionic or covalent

216
Q

Water make up how much of a lean adults body weight

A

55-60 percent

217
Q

Inorganic compounds that contain carbon are

A

CO2
Bicarbonate ion HCO3-
And carbonic acid H2CO3

218
Q

Organic compounds

A

Always contain carbon usually contain hydrogen and always have covalent bonds. Most are large molecules with many long carbon atom chains. They make up 38-43 percent of the body.

219
Q

What is the most important and abundant inorganic molecule in all living systems

A

Water

220
Q

What is the most important property of water? Why?

A

It’s polarity because it makes water an excellent solvent for all other ionic or polar substances, gives water molecules cohesion, and allows water to resist temperature changes

221
Q

Nearly all of the body’s chemical reactions occur in

A

A watery medium

222
Q

What is the most versatile solvent known to man

A

Water

223
Q

In a solution

A

A substance called the solvent dissolves another substance called the solute

224
Q

Solutes that are charged or contain polar covalent bonds are

A

Hydrophilic which means they dissolve easily in water

225
Q

Salt and sugar are both

A

Hydrophilic

226
Q

Molecules that contain many non covalent bonds

A

Are hydrophobic which means they are not very water soluble

227
Q

Water enables dissolved reactants

A

To collide and form new products

228
Q

Hydrolysis

A

When food particles undergo decomposition reactions because of the addition of water

229
Q

When two smaller molecules join to form a larger molecule in a dehydration synthesis reaction

A

A water molecule is one of the newly formed products

230
Q

Water can absorb or release large amounts of heat without

A

A huge effect on the temperature of the water which is why water is said to have a high heat capacity

231
Q

What causes water to have a high heat capacity

A

The large number of hydrogen bonds in water

232
Q

Since water has a high heat capacity

A

It lessens the impact of external temperature changes on core body temperature and maintains homeostasis

233
Q

What does it mean that water has a high heat of vaporization

A

It takes a lot of heat to take water from a liquid to a gas

234
Q

As water evaporates from the surface of the skin it removes

A

A large quantity of heat

235
Q

Water acts as a______ to keep body parts from grinding against one another

A

Lubricant

236
Q

Define mixture

A

A combination of elements or compounds that are physically blended together but not bound by chemical bonds

237
Q

Three common liquid mixtures include

A

Solutions
Colloids
Suspensions

238
Q

Solutions look transparent because

A

Once solutions are mixed the solutes are evenly dispersed among solvent molecules. The molecules are so small that you can’t see them

239
Q

The main difference between a colloid and solution is

A

The size of its particles

240
Q

The solute particles in a colloid are big enough to

A

Scatter light making the substance look opaque

241
Q

In suspensions though the suspended material may for some time appear to mix with the suspending medium

A

The solute will eventually settle down to the bottom

242
Q

Blood is an example of

A

A suspension

243
Q

One way to express the concentration is

A

Mass per volume percentage

244
Q

A mass per volume percentage gives

A

The relative mass of a solute found in a given volume of a solution

245
Q

Another way to express concentration is

A

Moles per liter also called molarity

246
Q

Moles per volume relates

A

The total number of molecules in a given volume of solution

247
Q

Define mole

A

The amount of any substance that has a mass in grams equal to the sum of atomic masses of all its atoms

248
Q

Define dissociation

A

The separation of inorganic acids bases and salts into ions in a solution

249
Q

When inorganic acids bases and salts dissolve in water they

A

Dissociate

250
Q

Define inorganic acid

A

A substance that dissociates into one of more hydrogen ions and one or more anions

251
Q

An acid is also called a ______ because ________

A

Proton donor

Because H+ is a single proton with one positive charge

252
Q

Define an inorganic base

A

A base is a substance that dissociates into one or more hydroxide ions OH- and one or more cations

253
Q

A base is called a _________ because________

A

Proton acceptor

It removes H+ from a solution

254
Q

What happens to a salt when dissolved in water

A

It dissociates into cations and anions neither of which is H+ or OH-

255
Q

In the body salts can be

A

Electrolytes that are important for carrying electrical currents especially in nerve and muscular tissues

256
Q

The ions of salts provide many

A

essential chemical elements in ICF and ECF such as blood lymph and interstitial fluid

257
Q

Acids and bases react with each other to form

A

Salts

258
Q

To ensure homeostasis intracellular and extracellular fluids must

A

Contain almost balanced quantities of acids and bases

259
Q

The more hydrogen ions the more______ a solution

A

Acidic

260
Q

The more hydroxide ions the more _______ a solution

A

Basic

261
Q

Any departure from the normal acid base balance

A

Greatly disrupts body functions

262
Q

The pH scale is based on

A

the concentration of H+ in moles per liter

263
Q

A change of one whole number on the pH scale represents

A

A ten fold change in the number of H+

264
Q

A substance with a pH of 7 is considered

A

Neutral

265
Q

A solution that has more H+ than OH- is

A

An acidic solution and has a pH below 7

266
Q

A solution that has more OH- than H+ is

A

A basic solution with a pH higher than 7

267
Q

Homeostatic mechanisms keep the Ph of blood between

A

7.35 and 7.45

268
Q

If the Ph of blood falls below 7.35 it results in a condition called_________

If the pH of blood rises above 7.45 it results in a condition called ______

A

Acidosis

Alkalosis

269
Q

What do buffer systems do?

A

Convert strong acids or bases into weak acids or bases

270
Q

Define buffers

A

Chemical compounds that convert strong acids or bases into weak ones

271
Q

How do buffers neutralize strong acids and bases

A

By removing or adding protons

272
Q

How does the carbonic acid bicarbonate buffer system work

A

The presence of carbonic acid and bicarbonate can compensate for either an excess or a shortage of H+

273
Q

Name some strong acids

A

Gastric juice
Lemon juice
Vinegar
Carbonated soft drink
Orange juice
Vaginal fluid
Tomato juice
Coffee
Urine (4.6-8.0)

274
Q

Name some pretty neutral substances pH of 6-8

A

Saliva
Milk
Pure water
Blood
Semen
Cerebrospinal fluid
Pancreatic juice
Bile (7.6-8.6)

275
Q

Name two common bases

A

Milk of magnesia
Lye (sodium hydroxide)

276
Q

Many organic molecules

A

Are relatively large and and have unique characteristics that allow them to carry out complex functions

277
Q

Important categories of organic molecules include

A

Carbs
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids
ATP

278
Q

What are the properties of carbon that make life possible

A

It can form large molecules with many shapes by bonding with thousands of other carbon atoms

The large size of carbon molecules and the water insolubility of some carbon containing molecules make them useful for building body structures

279
Q

Organic compounds are usually held together by

A

Covalent bonds

280
Q

Since carbon has 4 valence electrons

A

It can bond covalently with many a variety of atoms including carbon
,hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. And others

281
Q

Define carbon skeleton

A

The chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule

282
Q

Functional groups

A

Other atoms or molecules bound to the hydrocarbon skeleton

283
Q

Macromolecules

A

Small organic molecules that combine to form a very large molecule

284
Q

Macromolecules are usually

A

Polymers

285
Q

Define polymers

A

A large molecule formed by the covalent bonding of many identical or similar building block molecules called monomers

286
Q

Usually the reaction that joins two monomers is

A

A dehydration synthesis

287
Q

In a dehydration synthesis

A

A hydrogen atom is removed from one monomer and a hydroxyl group is removed from the other to form a molecule of water

288
Q

These macromolecules are formed in cells via dehydration synthesis

A

Carbs
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids

289
Q

Name the major functional groups of organic molecules

A

Hydroxyl
Sulfhydrl
Carbonyl
Carboxyl
Phosphate
Amino

290
Q

What is the significance of hydroxyl group

A

Alcohols contain a -OH group, which is polar and hydrophilic due to its electronegative O atom. Molecules with many -OH groups dissolve easily in water

291
Q

Describe the occurrence and significance of the sulfhydrl group

A

Thiols have a -SH group, which is polar and hydrophilic due to its electronegative S atom. Certain amino acids contain -SH groups which help stabilize the shape of proteins

292
Q

Describe the occurrence and significance of carbonyl groups

A

Ketones contain a carbonyl group within the carbon skeleton. The carbonyl group is electronegative due to its electronegative O atom. Aldehydes have a carbonyl group at the end of the carbon skeleton

293
Q

Describe the occurrence and significance of Esters

A

Esters predominate in dietary fats and oils and also occur in our bodies as triglycerides. Aspirin is an ester of salicylic acid, a pain relieving molecule found in the bark of the willow tree.

294
Q

Describe the occurrence and significance of phosphate groups

A

Phosphates contain a phosphate group which is very hydrophilic due to the dual negative charges. An important example is ATP which transfers chemical energy between organic molecules during chemical reactions

295
Q

Describe the occurrence and significance of amino groups

A

Amines have an -NH2 group which can act as a base and pick up a hydrogen ion, giving the amino group a positive charge. At the pH of body fluids most amino groups have a charge of 1+. All amino acids have an amino group at one end.

296
Q

Carbs include

A

Sugars
Glycogen
Starches
And cellulose

297
Q

In humans carbohydrates mainly function as

A

A source of chemical energy for generating ATP needed to drive metabolic reactions

298
Q

What are the elements found in carbs

A

C
H
O

299
Q

What are the three major groups of carbohydrates

A

Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides

300
Q

Carbohydrates generally contain one water molecule for

A

Every carbon atom

301
Q

What are monosaccharides

A

Simple sugars that contain 3 to 7 carbon atoms

302
Q

What are some examples of monosaccharides

A

Glucose
Fructose
Galactose
Deoxyribose
Ribose

303
Q

What are disaccharides

A

Simple sugars created by the combination of two monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis

304
Q

What are some examples of disaccharides

A

Sucrose
Lactose
Maltose

305
Q

What are polysaccharides

A

From tens to hundreds of monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis

306
Q

What are some examples of polysaccharides

A

Glycogen
Starch
Cellulose

307
Q

What are the monomers of carbohydrates

A

Monosaccharides

308
Q

What is a disaccharide

A

A molecule formed by the combination of two monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis

309
Q

Glucose and fructose are

A

Monosaccharides and isomers

310
Q

Disaccharides can be split into smaller simpler molecules by

A

Hydrolysis

311
Q

What are polysaccharides

A

Molecules containing tens or hundreds of monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis reactions

312
Q

Polysaccharides are usually

A

Insoluble in water

313
Q

The main polysaccharide in the body is

A

Glycogen

314
Q

Glycogen is made of

A

Glucose monomers linked to one another by branching chains

315
Q

Define starches

A

Polysaccharides formed from glucose by plants

316
Q

Polysaccharides can be broken down into monosaccharides by

A

Hydrolysis reactions

317
Q

Define cellulose

A

A polysaccharide formed from glucose by plants that cannot be digested by humans but does provide bulk to help eliminate feces

318
Q

Lipids make up _____of body mass in lean adults

A

18-25 percent

319
Q

Lipids contain what elements

A

Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen

320
Q

Lipids are typically

A

Insoluble in water which means they are hydrophobic

321
Q

In order to become soluble in water

A

Lipids join with hydrophilic proteins

322
Q

What are lipoproteins

A

Lipids that have combined with proteins to become soluble in water

323
Q

Name the different types of lipids in the body

A

Fatty acids
Triglycerides
Phospholipids
Steroids
Eicosanoids
Other lipids

324
Q

What are the functions of fatty acids

A

They are used to synthesize triglycerides and phospholipids or catabolized to generate ATP

325
Q

What are the functions of triglycerides

A

Protection
Insulation
Energy storage

326
Q

What are the functions of phospholipids

A

Major lipid component of cell membranes

327
Q

Name different steroids

A

Cholesterol
Bile salts
Vitamin D
Adrenocortical hormones
Sex hormones

328
Q

What is the functions of cholesterol

A

Minor component of all animal cell membranes, precursor of bile salts vitamin D and steroid hormones

329
Q

What is the function of bile salts

A

Needed for digestion and absorption of dietary lipids

330
Q

What is the functions of vitamin D

A

Helps regulate calcium level in the body, needed for bone growth and repair

331
Q

What is the function of adrenocortical hormones

A

Help regulate metabolism, resistance to stress, and salt and water balance

332
Q

What is the function of sex hormones

A

Stimulate reproductive functions and sexual characteristics

333
Q

What is the function of eicosanoids

A

Have diverse effects on modifying responses to hormones, blood clotting, inflammation, immunity, stomach acid secretion, airway diameter, lipid breakdown, and smooth muscle contraction.

334
Q

What are some other lipids

A

Carotenes
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Lipoproteins

335
Q

What is the function of carotenes

A

Needed for synthesis of vitamin A, functions as an antioxidant

336
Q

Vitamin E functions

A

Promotes wound healing, prevents tissue scarring, contributes to normal structure and function of nervous system, and functions as an antioxidant.

337
Q

Vitamin K functions

A

Required for synthesis of blood clotting proteins

338
Q

What are the functions of lipoproteins

A

Transport lipids in blood, carry triglycerides and cholesterol to tissues, and remove excess cholesterol from blood.

339
Q

Saturated fatty acids

A

Contain only single covalent bonds between the carbon atoms of the hydrocarbon chains

Bio 137 (9 decks)

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