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Anatomy 2 > Chapter 17 Nutrients and Metabolism > Flashcards

Chapter 17 Nutrients and Metabolism Flashcards

1
Q

What Is Nutrition?

A

 Definition
* The study of nutrients in foods and also in an animal’s body
 Clinical Importance of Pet Nutrition
*All cells in an animal’s body need a constant daily input of nutrients in order to stay healthy and functioning well

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2
Q

Difference between food and drugs

A

 Food is any substance, usually comprised primarily of carbohydrates, fats, water and/or proteins, that can be eaten or drunk by animals (including humans) for nutrition and/or pleasure.
 Drugs are any substance that enters the animal’s body that causes chemical changes in the animal’s body.

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3
Q

Nutrients

A

 Substances derived from food; necessary for carrying out normal body functions
 Six categories:
1. Water (most important) - inorganic
2. Carbohydrates
3. Lipids
4. Proteins
5. Vitamins
6. Minerals - inorganic

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4
Q

Some Nutrition Definitions

A

 Nutrients – any substance ingested to support life
*Essential - Those that the animal species cannot manufacture and must be found in the diet every day.
* Organic - have the carbon atom multiple times in them
- carbs, fats, proteins, vitamins

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5
Q

Nutrient Divisions

A

 Macronutrients
 Micronutrients – nutrient molecules so small that no digestion is required before being absorbed

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6
Q

Macronutrients

A

 Definition
* Large organic molecules that give structure and energy to the animal’s body (calories)
*Energy-producing nutrients
 3 categories
* Carbohydrates
* Lipids (fats & oils)
*Proteins
 Require digestion
 Produce calories

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7
Q

Micronutrients

A

 Definition
*Smaller molecules that are required by an animal for metabolism and homeostasis
* No digestion needed
* Non-energy-producing nutrients
 3 categories
*Vitamins
* Minerals
* Water (H2O)

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8
Q

Dietary Sources of Macronutrients

A

Carbohydrates
-Sugars
—Simple carbohydrates (monosaccharides and disaccharides) found in fruit, honey, sugar cane, sugar beets, and immature vegetables
-Starches
—Complex Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) found in grass, nuts, rice, root vegetables and legumes
-Cellulose
—-Complex Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) found in most vegetables
Proteins
—-Meat, dairy products, soy beans, green leafy plants, eggs
Lipids
-Neutral Fats
—- Saturated: meat, milk, cheese, cream, butter, coconuts
—-Unsaturated: vegetable oi, olive, safflower
—-phospholipids: plasma membranes in plant cells and animal cells
—-Steroids: eggs, butter and cream, animal fat, some chemical insecticides in the environment
—–Cholesterol

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9
Q

The 6 Nutrients
(In Descending Order of Amounts Needed)

A

Water
Carb
Protein
Fat
Minerals
Vitamins

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10
Q

Caloric Values of Energy Nutrients

A

Carb 4 cal/g
Fat 9cal/g
Protein 4 cal/g

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11
Q

Carbohydrates

A

 Sugars
* Monosaccharides and disaccharides
* Fruits, sugar cane, honey, milk, sugar beets
 Starches
*Polysaccharides
* Grains, root vegetables, and legumes
 Cellulose – fiber
*Polysaccharides
* Most vegetables

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12
Q

Glucose

A

 Monosaccharide
*Simplest, smallest dietary carbohydrate
 Used to make ATP through glycolysis
 Excess converted to glycogen and stored in liver -or- converted to fat and stored in adipose tissue

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13
Q

Lipids

A

 Insoluble in water
*“Fat floats!” 
 Soluble in other lipids and organic solvents
 4 major categories
* Neutral fats (triglycerides)
*Phospholipids
*Steroids
* Other lipoid substances
 Composition
* Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

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14
Q

Neutral Fats

A

= Fats or Oils
 Composed of fatty acids and glycerol
 Fatty acids
* Classified by number of carbon atoms in backbone of molecule
* Long-chain, medium-chain, or short-chain
 Glycerol
* modified simple sugar

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15
Q

Saturated Fatty Acids

A

 Single bonds between carbon atoms
 Can accommodate the greatest number of H+ atoms
 Tend to have long chains
 Found in meat and dairy foods
 Glycerol backbone and 3 straight fatty acid chains
“bad” fats

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16
Q

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

A

 One or more double bonds between carbon atoms
 Can accommodate fewer H+ atoms
 Tend to be liquid at room temperature (oils)
 Monounsaturated fats
* Olive and peanut oils
 Polyunsaturated fats
* Corn, soybean, and safflower oils
 Glycerol backbone and 3 kinked fatty acid chains
 Healthier- mono the best

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17
Q

Fatty Acids

A

 Liver can convert one fatty acid into another
 Essential fatty acids (EFA’s) cannot be synthesized and must be in the animal diet
* Linoleic acid
* Linolenic acid
*Arachidonic acid

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18
Q

Neutral Fats

A

 Contain over twice as much potential energy by weight as proteins or carbohydrates
 Make food taste good, stave off hunger
 Help body absorb fat-soluble vitamins: A,D, E, K
 Important insulator, when stored
 Protect and cushion vital organs
 Rebuilt by liver
* Forming different kinds of triglycerides
 Major energy source for hepatocytes and skeletal muscle cells

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19
Q

Phospholipids

A

 Derived primarily from cell membranes of plant and animal cells
 Modified triglycerides
* Glycerol core and two fatty acid chains = diglyceride
*Also a phosphorus group attached glycerol = “polar head”

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20
Q

Steroids

A

 Composed of 4 flat, interlocking rings of hydrocarbons
 Examples
* Cholesterol, bile salts, sex hormones, and hormones released from the cortex of the adrenal gland
 Cholesterol is essential precursor of all steroids
* Found in plasma membrane
* Nutritionally derived from egg yolks, milk, cheese
* Can be manufactured by liver
* Essential nutrient?
 Different types formed by attaching unique functional groups

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21
Q

Other Lipoid Substances

A

 Fat-soluble vitamins
 Eicosanoids
* Regulatory molecules derived from arachidonic acid
*Prostaglandins, leukotrienes, thromboxanes
 Lipoproteins

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22
Q

Proteins

A

 Dominant structural material of the animal body
 Regulate body functions
*Enzymes and hormones
 Transport oxygen
* Hemoglobin
 Aid in body movement
* Contractile proteins in muscle cells
 Can be used for energy in the animal body
 Commonly composed of 100–10,000 amino acids

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23
Q

Protein Structure

A

 Composed of amino acids linked together
*A basic amine group (-NH2)
*An organic acid group (-COOH)
*A variable R group
 22 different types of amino acids
 Type and order of amino acids determine structure and function of the protein
 10 essential and 12 nonessential amino acids in most species

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24
Q

Peptide bonds

A

 Peptide bond
*Bond between the acid group of one amino acid and the basic group on the next
 Dipeptide – linking of 2 amino acids
 Tripeptide – linking of 3 amino acids
 Polypeptide – linking of >10 amino acids
 Protein – polypeptide with 50 or more amino acids

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25
Q

Essential Amino Acids

A

Must be present in diet
Animal cannot make them at all, or cannot make them fast enough to meet body’s need for tissue maintenance and growth

Arginine
Glycine
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Taurine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Valine

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26
Q

Glycogen

A

A polysaccharide stored in the animal’s body
-stored in liver or skeletal muscle
-not a lot stored
(similar to how starch acts in plants)

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27
Q

All or None Rule for Amino Acids

A

 For body to make a new protein –
*All of the needed amino acids
*Essential and nonessential
* Must be present in the cell
*In sufficient quantity
*And all at the same time
 If one amino acid is missing, the protein cannot be manufactured

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28
Q

Complete Proteins

A
  • Food products that contain all the essential amino acids for a species
  • Meat, eggs, dairy
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29
Q

Complements (nutrients)

A
  • Food products, when ingested together, contain all the essential amino acids for a species
  • Legumes, grains, and cereals
30
Q

Nitrogen Balance

A

 Rate of protein synthesis should equal the rate of protein loss
 Nitrogen balance
* Rate of protein synthesis equals rate of protein breakdown and loss
 Positive nitrogen balance
*Body incorporates more protein into tissue than it is using to make energy (ATP)
* Healing, animal growth
 Negative nitrogen balance
*Protein breakdown exceeds amount of protein being incorporated into tissue
*Stress, starvation, poor dietary protein

31
Q

Ideal Protein Content in Foods

A

 Includes all essential amino acids needed by a species to meet its metabolic requirements
 Biologic value
*Percentage of absorbable protein available for body functions
* Not same as protein content

32
Q

Ruminant Digestion of Protein

A

 Facilitated by microbes
 Microbial-made protein has consistent quality regardless of the source
*Protein in lower-quality feed is improved by microbial metabolism
*Protein in higher-quality feed may be lowered
by microbial metabolism
 Rumen has ability to convert nonprotein sources of nitrogen into protein

33
Q

Vitamins

A

 Essential for life
* Do not produce energy when metabolized
*Are not broken down into building-block units
 Function as co-enzymes or parts of co-enzymes
* Molecular structure is “key” to activate an enzyme
 Most vitamins are not made in animal body
* Must be consumed in diet
*Essential Vitamins
*Exceptions: Vitamins D, K, biotin, A

34
Q

Water-Soluble Vitamins

A

 Absorbed through GI wall when water is absorbed
 Very few stored in body
* Hypervitaminosis conditions rare
 Excesses excreted in urine
 Group includes:
*Vitamin C
*B-complex vitamins

35
Q

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

A

 Bind to ingested lipids before they are absorbed with ingesta
 Stored in body (except for Vitamin K)
*Possible toxicity due to hypervitaminosis
 Group includes:
*Vitamins A, D, E, and K

36
Q

Free Radicals

A

 Potentially harmful to body
 Generated when carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are oxidized as part of normal metabolism
* Glucose + Oxygen  Water + Carbon Dioxide + ATP
 Disarmed by antioxidants
*Vitamins A, Vitamin C, Vitamin E: ACE

37
Q

Minerals

A

 Inorganic substances essential for life
 Elements on the Periodic Table
 Non-energy producing
 Work with other nutrients to ensure normal body functions
 3 classes depending on how much is required by body
* Macrominerals
* Microminerals
* Trace elements

38
Q

Water

A

The MOST Essential Nutrient of All
 Water 60%
*Intracellular (ICF) 40%
*Extracellular (ECF) 20%
— Vascular 15%
—Interstitial 5%
 Other elements 40%
(solutes)

39
Q

Normal Hydration

A

 Consuming the same amount of water that is lost
 Animals take in water
*Eating moist foods and drinking fluids
* Metabolic water
 Animals lose water
*Insensible water loss
– Diffused passively away from the skin
–Sweating, vocalizing, urinating, defeating
—-Vomiting, diarrhea, excessive sweating, hemorrhaging, and elevated body temperatures

40
Q

Body Fluids

A

 Intracellular fluid – cytosol
 Extracellular fluid
*Intravascular fluid – plasma
*Interstitial fluid

41
Q

Metabolism

A

 Definition – The sum total of ALL chemical reactions going on in all of the cells of the animal’s body
* Catabolism–the breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms to form simpler ones; destructive metabolism.
*Anabolism –the synthesis of complex molecules in living organisms from simpler ones together with the storage of energy; constructive metabolism.

42
Q

Catabolism

A

 Breaking down nutrients into smaller molecules to produce energy (e.g. – digestion)
 Energy is stored in bonds of ATP molecule and transported where it is needed

43
Q

Anabolism

A

 Stored energy is used to assemble new molecules from small components produced from catabolism
 Anabolic steroids – for starvation/emaciated cases

44
Q

Stages of Catabolism

A

 Stage 1: Hydrolysis
* Digestion in the lumen of the GI tract
* Carbohydrates, lipids (fats), proteins
*Energy produced
 Stage 2: The cytosol
*Anaerobic cellular respiration in the cell’s cytosol
—Acetyl CoA is transported through cytoplasm to the mitochondria
 Stage 3: The mitochondria
*Aerobic cellular respiration in mitochondria
— involves the attachment of an inorganic PO4 to a molecule of ADP to form ATP, used by the cell to “do its thing

45
Q

Anaerobic Cellular Respiration

A

**This part is most important to know:
Glycolysis -Not the primary source of ATP
Glucose → Alcohol + Carbon dioxide + Energy
**

▪ “Sugar splitting” occurs in all animals and includes 10 biochemical steps,
▪ 2 molecules of pyruvic acid, 4 molecules of ATP, and 2 molecules of NADH are produced
▪ Net energy yield from glycolysis = 2 ATP and 2 NADH

46
Q

Hydrolysis

A

(Catabolism)
* Carbohydrates broken down to monosaccharides
* Fats broken down to fatty acids and glycerol
*Proteins broken down to amino acids
* Nucleic acids broken down to nucleotides

47
Q

Anabolic Metabolism

A

 A biosynthetic process
 Growing cells need additional proteins
* For the expanded cell membranes
* To perform many other vital functions
 Replacement molecules must be manufactured continuously
* Metabolic turnover- largest demand for proteins and enzymes

48
Q

Dehydration Synthesis

A

 Important part of anabolism
*Effect is opposite of hydrolysis
 Monosaccharides are assembled to form chains of polysaccharides
* 1 monosaccharide + 1 monosaccharide = 1 disaccharide + water
 Fat molecules are formed from the connection of glycerol and fatty acids
 Proteins are created from chains of amino acids

49
Q

Control of Metabolic Reactions

A

 Metabolism is a multi-enzyme sequence of events
 Reactions are highly specific
* Cell relies on enzymes to initiate and control metabolism
 Enzymes are specialized proteins
*Each enzyme reacts with one particular molecule (substrate) to produce a new molecule (product)
* Enzyme action as catalyst
—Speeds up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy
*Product of one step is substrate of the next
 May need assistance of a nonprotein cofactor in order to complete a reaction
* Completes the shape of a binding site
*Examples: iron, zinc, copper, magnesium ions

50
Q

Enzyme Activity

A

Depends on molecular shape of the enzyme
Active site = region of enzyme that binds to the substrate
Enzymes not altered by the reactions

51
Q

Co-enzymes

A

 Nonprotein enzymes that may also act as cofactors
* Often vitamins, or derived from vitamins
 May be bound temporarily or permanently to the enzyme

52
Q

Energy for Metabolic Reactions

A

 Energy is supplied to cells by breakdown of nutrients
 Storage forms of energy: ATP, NADH, FADH2
 Energy is released when molecular bonds are broken

53
Q

Carbohydrate Metabolism

A

 Occurs in cytoplasm
* Catabolic and anabolic processes
 Sources of carbohydrates
* Diet
*Breakdown of glycogen or glycerol
*Propionate stored in the liver (ruminants)

54
Q

Aerobic Respiration where and what stages

A

 Occurs in the mitochondria
2 stages:
* Krebs cycle ( citric acid cycle)
* electron transport chain
–Final stage of aerobic cellular respiration
—Produces the majority of ATP for the cell

55
Q

Types of proteins structures

A

 Unique structures for unique functions
*Structural proteins
* Regulatory proteins
* Contractile proteins
* Transport proteins
* Membrane proteins
* Osmoregulators
*And – used to make energy (ATP)

56
Q

Glucose Metabolism

A

 Primary carbohydrate found in blood
 Absorbed by all cells
* Facilitated diffusion
*Active transport
 Glycolysis produces energy (ATP)
* Glucose broken down to form pyruvate (pyruvic acid)
* Cellular respiration follows
*Anaerobic or aerobic respiration

57
Q

Triglycerides

A

 Contain more carbon-hydrogen bonds than other nutrient molecules
* Contain 2 times the chemical energy of carbohydrates
*Store 6 times the chemical energy of glycogen
 Can be removed from blood by liver and structurally altered
* Lipolysis

58
Q

Protein Metabolism

A

 Amino acid catabolism occurs in most tissues
 Amino acid molecules may undergo transamination or deamination
*Intestinal mucosa, kidney, brain, liver, skeletal muscle

59
Q

NADH

A

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
Common coenzyme that acts as a cofactor

60
Q

FAD

A

Flavin adenine dinucleotide
Common coenzyme that acts as a cofactor

61
Q

Cofactor

A

Elements, such as coenzymes, that act concurrently with another element to carry out a chemical reaction
Important for digestion

62
Q

Trace elements

A

Chromium
Cobalt
Fluorine
Molybdenum
Nickel
Silicon
Sulfur
Vanadium

63
Q

Macrominerals

A

Calcium
Chlorine
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium

64
Q

Microminerals

A

Copper
Iodine
Iron
Manganese
Selenium
Zinc

65
Q

Cellular Metabolism

A

Encompasses all biochemical events *building molecules *breaking down nutrients
*manufacturing and packaging
*excreting

Making protein is an important example

66
Q

Krebes cycle

A

▪ Pyruvic acid enters the mitochondria
▪ Before it enters the Krebs Cycle, it is transformed from a three-carbon molecule of pyruvic acid into a two-carbon acetyl group;
this binds to a compound known as coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA,
***link between glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.
**1 molecule of CO2 and 1 NADH are generated for every
molecule of pyruvic acid
▪ Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle and reacts with oxaloacetic acid to form citric acid;
▪ As citric acid is produced, coenzyme A is released and is used repeatedly to make acetyl CoA.
▪ After seven additional steps, citric acid is converted back to oxaloacetic acid, and the entire process is repeated.
▪ Each turn of the Krebs cycle generates energy in the form of 1 ATP, 1 FADH2, and 3 NADH molecules
▪ For every molecule of glucose, the Krebs cycle can run twice and produce 2 ATP, 2 FADH2, and 6 NADH
▪ CO2, which is a by-product of respiration, diffuses out of the cell and into the bloodstream

67
Q

Electron transport system

A

▪ Occurs in the inner wall of the mitochondrion and produces the majority of ATP for the cell
▪ NAD and FAD molecules released from the conversion of pyruvic to acetyl CoA, glycolysis, and the Krebs cycle bind to hydrogen atoms to form NADH and FADH2.
The electrons in NADH and FADH2 hold most of the energy once held by the original glucose molecule.
**they are carried down a chain of electron carrier molecules, collectively known as the cytochromes
▪ Each cytochrome molecule contains a central core of iron that accepts electrons and then releases them at a lower energy level.
**At each step, large amounts of free energy are released and used to pump protons from the mitochondrial matrix
**This establishes a difference in electrical charge, because more positive hydrogen ions are pumped to the
outside than remain on the inside of the inner mitochondrial membrane.
** Thus, the outside has a positive charge relative to the matrix side of the membrane resulting in the formation of potential energy
▪ The energy released during the downhill pathway is captured in the formation of ATP from ADP.
**At the end of the electron transport chain, oxygen accepts the low-energy electrons, joins with hydrogen ions, and forms water. Thus, oxygen is the final acceptor of the electrons

68
Q

Enzyme structure

A
69
Q

Amino Acids in the body

A

 Amino acids cannot be stored
*If not used immediately to make proteins
* Oxidized by cell to make energy
* Converted to carbohydrates or fats

70
Q

Phase 1 Glycolysis

A

Phosphorylation -> energy
*(1 ATP) is invested in the process of adding a phosphate molecule to glucose to form glucose-6-phosphate (G6P). —– —-costs energy,
*G6P is rearranged to form fructose-6- phosphate.
-From here phosphorylation occurs again using another ATP to form fructose-1,6-diphosphate

71
Q

Phase 2 Glycolysis

A

Cleavage of sugar
* fructose-1,6-diphosphate is cleaved.
*A pair of three-carbon molecules is formed
– they can be one of two reversible isomers:
—- (less important) dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde phosphate
–The molecules change back and forth between these two forms

72
Q

Phase 3 Glycolysis

A

Formation of ATP via oxidation of sugar
▪ Net energy yield from glycolysis = 2 ATP and 2 NADH

Anatomy 2 (9 decks)

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