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Anatomy 2 > Chapter 12 - Blood > Flashcards

Chapter 12 - Blood Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the composition of blood

A

Approximately 7% of body weight

55% plasma
45% formed elements

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2
Q

Describe the funcitons of blood

A

Transportation
* Oxygen, nutrients, waste products, hormones,
platelets
 Regulation
*Body temperature, tissue fluid content, blood pH
 Defense system
* White cell phagocytosis, platelets

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3
Q

Describe the functions of blood

A
  • Transport oxygen to tissues (hemoglobin)
    –Oxygen, nutrients, waste products, hormones,
    platelets
    –Transport carbon dioxide to lungs
  • Regulation
    –Body temperature, tissue fluid content, blood pH
  • Defense system
    –White cell phagocytosis, platelets
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4
Q

Describe the difference between plasma and serum

A

Plasma is the liquid portion of the blood after all the blood cells have been removed. Water is the main ingredient in plasma.

Serum contains all the other proteins found in plasma’s water but the clotting factors are removed.

If a blood sample from an animal sits in a tube for several minutes, you’ll notice a layer of colorless or straw-colored fluid at the top of the sample, a small thin white layer, and then a clot of gel-like red material at the bottom.
- Top: Serum
- Middle: white blood cells (not always visible to the naked eye)
-Bottom: blood clot

 Fibrinogen is not found in serum
*Plasma protein
*Assists in the blood clotting process
* Leaves plasma to help clot blood

Not as important- To use plasma for testing, you must add an anticoagulant to the blood sample to block the clotting process. Anticoagulants used include heparin or sodium citrate.

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5
Q

Describe the structure of Erythrocytes

A

Erythrocytes = Red blood cells
–biconcave disks—cells with deep depressions in the center of each side. -(Dogs/humans -Other species have round cells without the central depressions)
Cell membrane is quite flexible,
–allows the red blood cell to squeeze through even the narrowest capillary.
-Erythrocyte cell membrane is close the capillary endothelium
–improves the efficiency of gas exchange by decreasing the distance across which the gases must travel.
–Appearance
* Non-nucleated
*Stain red

Mature erythrocytes of most mammals don’t possess a nucleus, while immature erythrocytes in the bone marrow have a nucleus.
–As it grows, it loses this nucleus and starts producing hemoglobin.
——Can’t manufacture new proteins or divide to produce more cell

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6
Q

Describe the function of Erythrocytes

A

The primary responsibility of the erythrocyte is the transport of gases throughout the body. Oxygen is carried from the lungs to the cells, and carbon dioxide is carried from the cells to the lungs.

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7
Q

Describe the structure of Leukocytes

A

White blood cells
Leukocytes are generally slightly larger than erythrocytes, and all possess a nucleus; thus, unlike erythrocytes, they’re capable of normal protein synthesis.

Formed in bone marrow by stem cells

Two categories of leukocytes are granulocytes and agranulocytes- color and granules depend on specific type.

*Neutrophils
*Eosinophils
*Basophils
* Lymphocytes
* Monocytes

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8
Q

Describe the function of Leukocytes

A

Provide defense for the body against foreign invaders
*Phagocytosis
*Immunity
 Each type has its own role

** not function but something to remember

 Produced in bone marrow
* Use peripheral blood to travel to site of activity

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9
Q

Describe the structure of Thrombocytes

A

Platelets
Not complete cells
* Pieces of cytoplasm from giant multinucleated bone marrow cells
 Appearance on blood smear:
* Non-nucleated
* Round to oval in shape
* Clear cytoplasm
* Small blue to purple granules in cytoplasm
* Size varies by species
* Generally smaller than RBCs
* Macroplatelets are occasionally seen

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10
Q

Describe the function of Thrombocytes

A

Most important for normal hemostasis
* Formation of platelet plug
*Stabilization of the plug
 Clotting process: complex!
 Absence of platelets can result in bleeding disorders

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11
Q

Describe the structure of the hemoglobin molecule

A

It is a protein
Made of four heme units associated with on globin chain
–each heme unit contains an iron molecule to which a O2 molecule attaches

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12
Q

List and describe the blood cell parameters of the CBC

A

One of the most useful clinical evaluations
*Plasma proteins
* Red blood cells
* White blood cells
*Platelets
 Health status of animal is reflected in results

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13
Q

Describe the indications and goals of transfusion

A

Used to replace fluid or blood that has been lost or destroyed
*Involves taking blood or blood component from donor animal and injecting it into recipient animal
 Indications for a transfusion
* Rapid blood loss
*Severe anemia
* Coagulation factor deficiency
* Lower than normal plasma protein
* Thrombocytopenia

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14
Q

Describe the two parts of the lymphatic system

A

Primary (lymphocytes)
* Thymus
*Bursa of Fabricius (Avian)
*Peyer’s patches - Intestinal tract
 Secondary - where invaders are fought
*Spleen
* Lymph nodes
* Tonsils

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15
Q

Thymus

A

Located in cranial thoracic region (mediastinum)
 Most prominent in young animals
*Atrophies with age
 Produces mature T-cells from precursors sent from the bone marrow
 Cells leave thymus and travel to secondary lymphoid tissue
*Important in stimulating cell-mediated immune response

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16
Q

Animal Lymphoid Organs

A

 Bursa of Fabricius
* Found only in birds
* Round sac located above the cloaca
*Similar in structure and function to the thymus Lymphoid Organs
 Peyer’s patches
* Located in wall of small intestine (GALT)
*Structure and functions vary among species
*Activate B cells to produce antibodies

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17
Q

Describe the formation of lymph fluid

A

Lymph starts outas excessive tissue fluid
Capillaries in tissue join to form larger vessels to propel lymph toward the heart
Lymph eventually joins bloodstream

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18
Q

Describe the circulation of the lymphatic system

A

 Excessive interstitial fluid picked up by small lymph capillaries
— Fluid enters/leaves tissue spaces due to blood pressure and osmotic pressure
 Lymph capillaries join together to form larger and larger lymph vessels
 Utilization of one-way valves and body movements to propel lymph toward the heart
 Lymph passes through at least one lymph node and picks up lymphocytes
 Macrophages in lymph node remove microorganisms
 Lymph is emptied into vena cava just before large vein enters the heart
 Lymph has come full circle (Secret of Life!)
* Originated in plasma
* Has returned to plasma

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19
Q

Blood

A

A fluid connective tissue
A living tissue even after it is taken from an animal
* RBCs utilize plasma glucose for energy
* Glucose cannot be replenished in a tube after RBCs use it
 Functions
* Transport oxygen to tissues (hemoglobin)
* Transport carbon dioxide to lungs
* Maintain cell shape and deformability
Can be categorized as
*Whole Blood contained in cardiovascular system (unclotted)
*Peripheral Blood

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20
Q

hemoglobin

A

Found in erythrocytes-
a protein molecule with an iron molecule in the center. Hemoglobin binds both oxygen and carbon dioxide for transport.

Hemoglobin is manufactured in the immature erythrocyte (which still possesses a nucleus) in the bone marrow. However, once the erythrocyte matures, no nucleus and no endoplasmic reticulum are present to manufacture more hemoglobin. This fact is crucial, because under certain conditions, the hemoglobin molecule is irreversibly damaged and becomes of no use for gas transport.

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21
Q

Hematopoiesis

A

Production of all blood cells
 Continuous process throughout animal’s life
 Occurs primarily in red bone marrow
*Adult sites: skull, ribs, sternum, vertebral column, pelvis, proximal ends of the femurs
* Less-active bone marrow = yellow bone marrow
 Occurs in liver and spleen in times of great need

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22
Q

What is found in Plasma

A

Water containing

Dissolved electrolytes
pH buffers
Proteins of many types and functions
Fats
Sugars
Vitamins
Minerals

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23
Q

nucleated red blood cells (NRBCs)

A

Immature erythrocytes in the bone marrow have a nucleus

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24
Q

Life span of red blood cells

A

 Normal life span varies with species
* From mice (20-30 days) to cats (68 days) to dogs (120 days) to horses and sheep (150 days) to cows (160 days). (Important one to remember is dogs and cats - )
 Process of aging = senescence
*Enzyme activity decreases
* Cell membrane loses deformability
*About 1% of cells removed from circulation daily
* Destruction: extravascular or intravascular

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25
Q

Inflammation

A

Inflammation in tissue is clinically defined by four classic hallmarks: redness, heat, swelling, and pain. Inflammation is a consequence of the body’s attempt to fight infection or repair damaged tissue.

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26
Q

Granulocytes

A

A type of leukocytes

Prominent granules appear in their cytoplasm when viewed on a stained blood smear
 Eosinophils
* Granules pick up acidic stain and appear red
 Basophils
* Granules pick up basic stain and appear blue
 Neutrophils
* Don’t pick up either stain well
* Appear colorless or faintly violet

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27
Q

Agranulocytes

A

A type of leukocyte
* Lymphocytes and monocytes

WBCs that don’t contain specific staining granules in their cytoplasm
Include lymphocytes and monocytes

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28
Q

Lymphocyte Characteristics

A

 Easily recognized by round or oval nucleus
 Minimal, clear, almost colorless cytoplasm
 Most live in lymphoid tissue and circulate between these tissues and blood

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29
Q

Lymphocyte Functions

A

3 different types of lymphocytes and plasma cells with individual functions that regulate the immune system
 T lymphocytes (T cells) - Responsible for cell-mediated immunity and active B cells
 B lymphocytes (B cells) - humoral immunity
 Natural killer (NK) cells -Kill virus infected cells, stressed cells and tumor cells
 Plasma Cells - Release antibodies

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30
Q

T lymphocytes (T cells)

A

–Most lymphocytes in peripheral blood are T cells
— Start in bone marrow and then processed/Mature in thymus before going to peripheral lymphoid tissue
— Then migrate to other lymphoid tissues and the blood
—Single nucleus

Function
—-Responsible for cell-mediated immunity
—- Responsible for activating B cell

They are like marines- do hand to hand combat

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31
Q

B lymphocytes (B cells)

A

 Inactive B cells travel through lymph nodes, spleen, and other lymphoid tissue
* Rarely in peripheral blood
 Responsible for antibody production
* Each B cell produces only one antibody type against one specific antigen
* Surface receptors are shaped to fit only one antigen shape (epitope)
 Extracellular
 Differentiate into plasma cells (plasma cells make antibodies)
 Single nucleus

Artillery- shoot antibodies

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32
Q

Natural Killer (NK) Cells

A

Surveillance and Destruction
 Granular lymphocytes found in blood and lymph
 Have ability to identify and kill virus-infected cells
 Bind to cell and induce cellular changes that lead to cellular death = apoptosis
* Do not ingest the target cell
 2 types of receptors
*Killer-activating receptor (KAR)
*Killer-inhibitory receptor (KIR)
 Part of both innate and adaptive immune systems

33
Q

Memory Cells

A

Both T cells and B cells can become memory cells
 Clones of an original lymphocyte (B and T cells)
 Stay in lymph nodes or circulate in blood
* Look for antigen that originally triggered their
activation
* When find antigen, immune response is activated
* Response stronger and quicker than initial
response

34
Q

Clotting Process

A

Also called coagulation cascade
mediated by about 30 proteins known as clotting factors

*Platelet adhesion
*Platelet aggregation
* Thrombin is formed
* Converts fibrinogen to strands of fibrin
* Fibrin attaches to platelet surface cementing platelets in place (clot)

35
Q

hemolysis

A

Old red blood cells are destroyed. Allows for the components of the red blood cell to be put back into circulation to help build new red blood cells.

36
Q

extravascular hemolysis,

A

the old erythrocyte is removed from circulation via macrophages. (90%)
-Macrophages destroy the cell, leaving amino acids, iron, and heme.
-heme is then further broken down into bilirubin.
–Iron is transported to the bone marrow where it will make new red blood cells
–The amino acids and the bilirubin are then taken to the liver for recycling.
—The amino acids are used to make more proteins.
–bilirubin becomes conjugated (bound to glucuronic acid)
– extracted from intestines as bile pigment
– converted to urobilinogen by intestinal bacteria
—- eliminated as feces and urine

If the liver is overwhelmed with the bilirubin, it can be deposited in the tissues, causing them to take on a yellowish-hue called jaundice or icterus.

37
Q

Intravascular hemolysis

A
  • old red blood cell is destroyed while still in the blood vessel.
  • 10% of hemolysis (most is extravascular)
  • Many stresses can cause rupture of blood cell in blood vessel
  • the red blood cell releases hemoglobin into circulation.
    —It’s then taken to the liver by haptoglobin
    — if there is an excess it’s taken up by the kidneys and released in urine, called hemoglobinuria, causing the urine to take on a red color.

Less important: Sometimes, the hemoglobin is in such supply that it changes the color of the plasma to pink, red, or brown—a condition known as hemoglobinemia.

38
Q

heme

A

The part of certain molecules that contains iron

39
Q

Packed Cell Volume

A

= Hematocrit (Hct)
Volume of packed RBCs measured and expressed as a percent of total volume of blood

40
Q

Lymphatic system

A

2 separate parts of animal’s immune system
 System of ducts and fluid lymph
*System picks up fluid leaked from capillaries
* Lymph ducts carry lymph to blood vessels near heart
* Lymph is put back into bloodstream
 System of lymphoid organs and tissues
* Lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, tonsils, and gut associated lymph tissue (GALT)

41
Q

Lymphatic System Functions

A

 Removal of excess tissue fluid
*Inadequate lymph drainage can result in edema
 Waste material transport
 Filtration of lymph
* Lymph passes through lymph nodes
 Protein transport

think sewage system

42
Q

Lymph Characteristics

A

 Transparent or translucent liquid
 Contains varying numbers of cells
*Primarily lymphocytes
 Different from plasma
* More water, sugar, and electrolytes
* Fewer of the larger proteins found in plasma
 Lymph from digestive system = chyle
*Postprandial (after dinner or lunch) lipemia

(lymph system similar to airplane security line)

43
Q

Secondary Lymphoid Organs

A

Include spleen, lymph nodes, and tonsils
 Enlarge in response to antigenic stimulation
 Main function
* Trap and process antigens and mature lymphocytes that mediate immune responses

44
Q

Spleen General facts

A

 Largest lymphoid organ
 Storage of blood
 Lymphocyte cloning
 Removal of old RBC’s
(Secret of Life!)

45
Q

Spleen Physiology

A

Acts as a reservoir for blood when animal is at rest
*Spleen gets larger when storage spaces are filled with blood
 When body needs excess blood cells:
* Trabeculae contract
*Blood is squeezed back into circulation
*Spleen gets smaller
 Not essential for life (splenectomy)

 White pulp has immunological functions
*Phagocytic cells react to antigens in bloodstream
 Macrophages in red pulp remove worn, damaged
blood cells

46
Q

Lymph nodes

A

 Small, kidney bean-shaped filters located along lymphatic vessels throughout the body
 Trap antigens and other foreign materials in lymph
 2 sections
* Cortex
— Lymph nodules
* Medulla
—Tissue macrophages, B cells and T cells
 Drain to organs in their associated locations
 Can give clue to health of an animal
* Nodes more easily palpated when enlarged in response to antigenic stimulation
* Fine Needle Aspirate (FNA) and cytology for evaluation for abnormalities

47
Q

Tonsils

A

 Nodules of lymphoid tissue that are not covered with a capsule
 Found in epithelial surfaces all over the body
* Most familiar in pharyngeal region
* *Pharynx, larynx, urinary, & reproductive tracts
 Present at beginning of lymph draining system
 Function to prevent spread of infection into respiratory and digestive systems before it can cause disease
 Part of the MALT system

48
Q

Tonsils vs. Lymph Nodes

A

 Tonsils
* Found close to moist epithelial surfaces
* Found at beginning of lymph drainage system
* No capsule

 Lymph nodes
* Found along lymph vessels
* Have a capsule

49
Q

Erythropoiesis

A

The process by which red blood cells are created.

50
Q

Fibrinogen

A

Clotting agent

51
Q

pluripotential

A

A type of stem cell from which all cells have evolved

52
Q

Hypoxia

A

Oxygen deficiency. Leads to the production of blood. Many causes. Bluish tinge of mucus membranes

53
Q

How does red blood cell carry oxygen to tissues

A

Erythrocytes carry oxygen to tissues through the production of the protein hemoglobin that binds with the oxygen. Hemoglobin is a protein composed of two components—heme and globin. Every heme group can carry a molecule of oxygen. Four heme groups attach to each globin molecule, so each hemoglobin molecule can carry four molecules of oxygen. The oxygen attaches to iron atoms (Fe++) that are part of each heme group.

54
Q

Neutrophils

A

40 - 75% of circulating leukocytes
polymorphonuclear (many lobed nucleus - PMN)
Larger than RBC
Smaller than monocytes
Doesn’t stain well
Involved in early stage of inflammation- think of them as traffic cops

Phagocytosis in tissues

55
Q

Diapedesis

A

The process in which the white blood cells squeeze through the endothelium

56
Q

Chemotaxis

A

– process that attracts neutrophils to inflammatory chemicals at site of infection

57
Q

Opsonization

A
  • Coating process that makes microorganism more recognizable
    *Allows neutrophil to begin phagocytosis
     Encapsulated microorganism is coated with a plasma protein
    *A specific antibody = opsonin
58
Q

Neutrophil Phagocytosis

A

Microorganisms are engulfed and enclosed in phagosome
 Cytoplasmic granules move close to edge of phagosome
 Granules release lysosomal enzymes which help kill the microorganisms

59
Q

Eosinophil Characteristics

A

 Named for red granules of mature cells when viewed on a stained blood smear
 Segmented nucleus – usually 2 lobes
 Slightly larger than neutrophils
 Produced in bone marrow
 Stay in blood circulation for 3-8 hours before migrating to tissue, where they remain

60
Q

Eosinophil Functions

A

 Inflammatory response
– allergic reactions (anaphylaxis)
 Immunity
 Phagocytosis

in body tissue

61
Q

Basophil Characteristics

A

 Named for the blue granules of mature cells when viewed on a stained blood smear
 Multi-lobed nuclei
 Similar in size to neutrophils

62
Q

Basophil Functions

A

 Least phagocytic of the granulocytes - initiates immune response
 Contents of granules
* Histamine
* Heparin
 Share some characteristics with tissue mast cells
*Both contain Immunoglobulin E

in body tissue

63
Q

Monocyte characteristics

A

 Largest WBC in circulation
 Nuclei can be of many different shapes
* Round to pseudo-lobed
 Abundant cytoplasm
*Stains gray
* May contain vacuoles

Super PacMan Phagocytosis in blood or tissues

64
Q

Monocyte Functions

A

 Participates in inflammatory response
 Known as macrophage when it enters tissues
* Lives in tissues for 100+ days
 Tissue macrophages and monocytes
* Constitute mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS)
* Clean up cellular debris after an infection/inflammation clears up
* Can also ingest antigens

65
Q

Antigen

A

a toxin or other foreign substance which induces an immune response in the body, especially the production of antibodies.

66
Q

vena cava

A

The superior vena cava and inferior vena cava are very large veins that bring deoxygenated blood to your heart to get oxygen.

67
Q

GALT

A

All the lymphoid tissue in the gut is collectively called GALT (gut-associated lymphoid tissue).

68
Q

The Spleen anatomy

A

 Tongue-shaped organ located on the left side of the abdomen
* Near stomach in simple-stomached animals
* Near the rumen in ruminants
 Covered with capsule of fibrous connective tissue and smooth muscle
* Trabeculae from capsule go into soft tissue of spleen
*Smooth muscle cells contract and squeeze blood out of spleen and back into circulation

69
Q

Whole Blood

A

Contained in the cardiovascular system

70
Q

Peripheral Blood

A

Circulating in blood vessels carrying oxygen, nutrients and waste products

71
Q

Composition of Plasma

A

– 7% proteins
—- Albumins
——Globulins
— Fibrinogen
–91% water
–2% Other solutes
—ions
— nutrients
– waste products
—gases
—-regulatory substances

72
Q

Composition of formed elements of blood

A

-Erythrocytes (5.5 - 8.5 mill)
-Platelets ( 200-500 thous, number per cubic mm)
-Leukocytes (6 - 17 thous)
– 60 - 77% neutrophils
– 12 - 30% Lymphocytes
– 3 - 10% monocytes
– 2 - 10% Eosinophils
– (rare) Basophils
-

73
Q

Kidneys blood cells

A

*releases erythropoietin to stimulate erythrocyte production by the bone marrow
*Can take up hemoglobin and release in urine, called hemoglobinuria, causing the urine to take on a red color.
– hemoglobin mainly taken by the liver

74
Q

biconcave shape of erythrocytes

A

provides more membrane surface area for diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
renders the cell deformable and thus can take in water.
provides a central pallor to the cell

75
Q

Haptoglobin

A

the transport plasma protein that picks up hemoglobin in the blood and takes it to the liver
-intravascular hemolysis

76
Q

Band Cells

A

Immature form of neutrophils, which are the most commonly produced white blood cell.

77
Q

multipotent

A

cells that can renew for extended periods of time and differentiate into specific cell types with specific functions

78
Q

Penia

A

deficiency

Anatomy 2 (9 decks)

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