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Biology > chapter 17-20 > Flashcards

chapter 17-20 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

genotype

A

DNA

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2
Q

phenotype

A

physically seen

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3
Q

codon

A

combo of 3 nucleotides that code for amino acid

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4
Q

central dogma

A

DNA>transcription>RNA>translation>Polypeptide>protein

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5
Q

prokaryote areas of central dogma

A

transcription and translation both occur in the cytoplasm

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6
Q

eukaryotic areas of central dogma

A

transcription occurs in the nucleus, translation occurs in the cytoplasm

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7
Q

initiation

A

polymerase binds to the promoter region

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8
Q

elongation

A

addition of the RNA nucleotide in the 5’ > 3’ direction

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9
Q

termination

A

sequence ends here

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10
Q

prokaryotic initiation

A

no transcription factors; RNA polymerase binds directly to the promoter

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11
Q

eukaryotic initiation

A

several transcription factors, RNA polymerase directly to the promoter

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12
Q

start codon

A

directs the process of translation to begin (methionine AUG)

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13
Q

Stop Codon

A

directs the process of translation to end (UAA, UGA, UAG)

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14
Q

anticodon

A

3 nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a particular codon

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15
Q

codon recognition

A

tRNA binds to its complementary mRNA (codon in A site)

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16
Q

peptide bond formation

A

amino acid that comes in on tRNA gets added the lone amino acid on tRNA in A site

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17
Q

translocation

A

tRNA in the P site (empty) moved to E site to get kicked out, amino acid in A site moves to P site

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18
Q

steps of transcription

A

initiation, elongation, termination

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19
Q

steps to elongation

A

codon recognition, peptide bond formation, translocation

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20
Q

messenger RNA

A

translated into proteins mRNA

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21
Q

ribosomal RNA

A

codes for making ribosomes rRNA

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22
Q

transfer RNA

A

binds free amino acids and delivers them to the ribosomes (translation site) tRNA

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23
Q

RNA synthesis

A

catalyzed by RNA polymerase, links RNA nucleotides complementary to a DNA template strand

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24
Q

ribosome

A

made up of ribosomal RNAs and protein, facilitates this coupling with binding sites for mRNA and tRNA (coord stages of translation)

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25
Q

silent mutation

A

sequence changes amino acid stays the same

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26
Q

missense mutation

A

single change in 1 amino acid

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27
Q

nonsense mutation

A

changes following amino acid

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28
Q

frameshift mutation

A

nucleotide pair insertion

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29
Q

polyribosomes

A

formed by a single mRNA molecule translated simultaneously by a number of ribosomes (in eukaryotic separate in space and time by nuclear membrane)

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30
Q

5’ Cap

A

modified G nucleotide, added to 5’ end

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31
Q

poly a tail

A

50-250 A nucleotides, added to 3’ end

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32
Q

splicing

A

introns are removed and exons are ligated together (carried out by splicesomes)

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33
Q

intron

A

region that doesn’t code for amino acids (cut out first)

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34
Q

exons

A

region that codes for amino acids (remove themselves)

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35
Q

ribozymes

A

catalytic ability of some RNA molecules derives from the inherited property of RNA

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36
Q

polypeptide

A

polymer of amino acids, bonded by amino acids

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37
Q

prokaryotes gene expression

A

regulate response to different environmental conditions

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38
Q

eukaryotes gene expression

A

controls differences between different cell types (respond to environmental conditions)

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39
Q

dna in eukaryotic cell

A

folding DNA (histones packaged) methylation of DNA (silence genes) Transcription factors bind to DNA for the production of RNA; bind to promoters or enhancers

40
Q

RNA in eukaryotic cell

A

process premRNA>mRNA (splicing, alternative) chew it up/block translation (RNAi)

41
Q

protein in eukaryotic cell

A

cleave/ modify, chew up if needed, inhibitors/activators

42
Q

unacetylated histones

A

bounded DNA, hard to access genes

43
Q

acetylated histones

A

dna is spread out, gene info is accessible

44
Q

histone modification

A

turns genes on/ off by how tightly DNA is coiled

45
Q

operator

A

works as the on/off switch

46
Q

inhibitor (repressor)

A

needs a factor, if factor is present may or may not work (inhibits RNA polymerase)

47
Q

Lac operon (inducible)

A

lactose present binds to repressor and inactivates it. Prevent repressor from binding to operon and allow translation to continue

48
Q

inactive cap

A

activated by the presence of cAMP, from glucose being low and lactose being present, high in cAMP, binds and activates CAP protein to bind to promoter region and allows free transcription of LAC operon

49
Q

Hoax gene

A

determines how the body develops

50
Q

methyl interference

A

development from 1 cell to multicellular organisms (specializing certain cells) and changing expression levels of certain genes (cell signaling)

51
Q

repressor protein

A

binding to the operator shuts off transcription (the repressor is encoded by a separate regulatory gene)

52
Q

repressible operon

A

active when bound to a corepressor; usually the end product of an anabolic pathway

53
Q

Ras gene

A

connective to cancer, involved in transduction normally has to be simulated

54
Q

mutation in Ras

A

pathway is constantly on, stimulating growth over and over

55
Q

p53

A

mutation can lead to uncontrolled cell division; controls apoptosis

56
Q

cancer

A

dividing cells we don’t want divided, bipass check point and gene expression road blocks, mutations in gene that regulates control or in a gene repair

57
Q

oncogene

A

made by DNA changing to make a proto-oncogene active, mutation that reduces product may lead to excessive cell division/cancer; prevent apoptosis of cancerous cells

58
Q

reverse transcriptase

A

mRNA (cDNA synthesis)>cDNA (PCR amplification (PCR amplification)>embryonic stages (gel electrophoresis)

59
Q

pathogenic organisms

A

capable of causing disease, smaller genome than us so it’s more easily sequenced

60
Q

phages

A

virus that infects bacteria, can replicate by 2 alternative mechanisms

61
Q

retroviruses

A

(such as HiV) use reverse transcriptase to copy RNA genome into DNA, can be integrated into the host genome as a provirus

62
Q

vaccines

A

stimulate the immune system to defend the host against specific values

63
Q

epidemic

A

widespread outbreak of a disease

64
Q

prions

A

slow acting, virtually indestructible, infectious proteins

65
Q

viruses

A

contain genetic information and protein code contain: lipids, attachment/ injection structures

66
Q

components of a virus

A

nucleic acid>wrapped around protein>lipids from plasma membrane of former host>glycoproteins

67
Q

lytic cycle

A

virulent/temp phage, destruction of host DNA, production of new phages, lysis of host cell causes release of progenyphages

68
Q

lysogenic cycle

A

temp phage only, genome integrates into bacterial chromosome as prophage which is relocated and passed on to daughter cells and can be induced to leave the chromosome and initiate a lytic cycle

69
Q

viroids (infectious agent)

A

small circular RNA molecules that infect plants and disrupt growth

70
Q

oncogenic virus

A

virus that gives arise to tumors, linked to 15% of human viruses

71
Q

dormant viruses

A

nucleic acid into nucleus then into genome to affect humans

72
Q

virus infects a bacteria cell

A

lytic/ lysogenic cycle

73
Q

virus infects an animal cell

A

receptor mediated endocytosis

74
Q

virus infects hosts (in general)

A

nucleic acid from virus produces associated proteins, nucleic acid>protein (may not need mRNA because it would already be there, just have to package it) (mRNA at some point in all virus to code for translation)

75
Q

phagocytosis

A

process by which a cell engulfs a solid particle to form an internal compartment known as a phagosome

76
Q

pinocytosis

A

the ingestion of liquid into a cell by the budding of small vesicles from the cell membrane.

77
Q

what do viruses do to a cell?

A

hijack/destroy it (use as factory, shedding of particles is an issue)

78
Q

PCR

A

amplification of a region of DNA, primers are specific to that region; can produce many copies of a specific target segment using primer that bracket the desired sequence and heat resistant DNA polymerase

79
Q

steps to PCR

A

denaturing, annealing, extension, cycle 1 yields 2 molecules, cycle 2 yields 4 molecules, cycle 3 yields 8 molecules

80
Q

totipotent

A

single differentiated cells from plant; capable of generating all tissues of a completely new plant

81
Q

In Situ hybridization

A

uses fluorescent dyes attached to probes to identify the location of specific mRNAs in place in the intact organism

82
Q

DNA sequencing

A

shuffling DNA around and getting it in the correct order, carried out through deoxychain termination method

83
Q

cloning

A

makes copies, repeated onto every fragment has a complementary strand, plasmid within a cell controls cloning, PCR and restriction enzymes create specific plasmid

84
Q

next generation sequencing

A

based sequencing by synthesis, DNA polymerase is used to synthesize a stretch of DNA from a single stranded template

85
Q

RNA sequencing

A

used to sequence cDNAs corresponding to RNAs from the cell

86
Q

knockouts

A

One gene is changed so it doesn’t function

87
Q

knock downs

A

use RNA interference to reduce expression of a gene

88
Q

single nucleotide polymorphism

A

used by genome wide association studies, used as genetic markers for alleles that are associated with particular conditions

89
Q

cloning vector

A

plasmid used over and over, high copy number, lots of plasmid and bacteria, don’t have nucleotide sequence for producing proteins

90
Q

expression vector

A

DNA sequence to create protein, put plasmid into bacterium, used to make protein with and create

91
Q

to go from cloning to expression enzyme

A

cut with restriction enzymes, then use gel electrophoresis to look at bands to see if we have/cut the right DNA

92
Q

DNA microarray

A

used to identify set of genes co-expressed by a group of cells

93
Q

CRISPR-Cas-9 system

A

allows researchers to edit genes in living cells in a specific delivery way

94
Q

DNA fragments

A

cut by same restriction enzymes used on cloning vector

95
Q

cloning vectors and DNA fragments are

A

mixed and ligated

Biology (7 decks)

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