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Biology 2311 > Chapter 14- PowerPoint > Flashcards

Chapter 14- PowerPoint Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the distance between the 2 strands? diameter of DNA?

A

2 nm

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2
Q

What is the distance for one turn in DNA

A

3.4 nm

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3
Q

How many base pairs are need to make 1 turn in the DNA helical structure?

A

10 base paris

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4
Q

In the beginning what did scientist believe about DNA?

A

that proteins were the most likely hereditary molecules

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5
Q

What is Hammerling’s experiment?

A

Cells of green alga (Acetabularia) were cut into pieces and observed to see which were able to express hereditary information.

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6
Q

What did Hammerling’s experiment find?

A

discovered hereditary information is stored in the cell’s
nucleus

—base of plant (has the nucleus) and determines the head of the plant

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7
Q

What did Frederick Griffith do?

A

found a substance
that could genetically transform bacteria
(transformation)

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8
Q

What does pathogenic mean?

A

causes the disease

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9
Q

What were the 2 strains of Streptococcus pneumonia did Frederick Griffith use?

A

smooth and rough strain

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10
Q

What was the smooth strain (S) of streptococcus pneumoniae?

A 
highly infective (virulent), quickly
causing pneumonia and killing mice
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11
Q

What was the rough strain (R) of streptococcus pneumoniae?

A

nonvirulent and does not kill mice

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12
Q

What is the difference between S and R strain?

A

presence of a capsule in the S strain

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13
Q

Mice die. Live S cells in their blood;
shows that living R cells can be converted to
virulent S cells with some factor present in and
derived from dead S cells.

A

via transformation

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14
Q

What happened when Mice injected with live S cells?

A

mice died, S cells are virulent

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15
Q

What happened when Mice injected with live R cells?

A

mice lived, R cells are nonvirulent

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16
Q

What happened when Mice injected with heat-killed S cells?

A

mice live, S cells need to be live to be virulent

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17
Q

What happened when Mice injected with heat-killed R cells?

A

mice die, living R cells can be converted to virulent S cells with some factor present in and
derived from dead S cells.

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18
Q

What happened in Avery’s experiments?

A

• Avery broke down heat-killed S bacteria and destroyed one class of molecules: Protein, DNA, or RNA

• When proteins or RNA were destroyed, the extract still
transformed R bacteria into virulent S bacteria

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19
Q

Whose experiments did Avery build off of?

A

Griffith’s (mice)

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20
Q

What was Avery trying to find out?

A

transforming principle of Griffith’s mice experiments

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21
Q

What was the transforming principle in Avery’s experiments?

A

DNA

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22
Q

When did Griffith do his experiment?

A

1928

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23
Q

When did Avery do his experiment?

A

1940s

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24
Q

How did Avery conduct his experiment? and what occurred?

A
  • removed almost all lipid and protein from bacteria, and found no reduction in transforming activity
  • DNase destroyed all transforming activity
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25
Q

What did Hershey-Chase do in their experiment?

A

labeled DNA and protein with radioactive isotope tracer

Used radioactive S and P to label protein and DNA

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26
Q

What did Hershey-Chase find in their experiment?

A

determined hereditary information was DNA, not protein

—reconfirmed it was DNA was the transforming protein

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27
Q

In Hershey-Chase experiment what did the viruses infect?

A

bacterium E. coli

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28
Q

What is a bacteriophage?

A

viruses that can infect bacteria

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29
Q

What is the structure of a virus?

A

protein “head” and DNA core

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30
Q

When does infection occur with viruses?

A

when virus injects DNA into a bacterial cell.

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31
Q

When did the Hershey-Chase experiments occur?

A

1953

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32
Q

Can more than one bacteriophage infect a cell?

A

yes

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33
Q

What was Hershey-Chase’s goal in using bacteriophages?

A

Wanted to determine which of these molecules is the

genetic material that is injected into the bacteria

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34
Q

What can a bacteriophage also be called?

A

phage

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35
Q

What is a virus?

A

Infectious agent made of DNA or RNA,

surrounded by a protein coat.

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36
Q

How do viruses reproduce?

A

in a host cell, using host cell materials

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37
Q

What are they 2 lifecycles that bacteriophages go through?

A

lytic and lysogenic

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38
Q

What is the lifecycle of a bacteriophage?

A

injection, replication, expression, packaging, lysis

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39
Q

How did the Hershey-Chase experiment work?

A
  • They showed that labeled DNA, not labeled protein, entered the cell and appeared in progeny phages
  • Bacteriophage DNA was labeled with radioactive phosphorus (32P) — in DNA
  • Bacteriophage protein was labeled with radioactive sulfur (35S) — in Protein capsule
  • Radioactive molecules were tracked
  • Only the bacteriophage DNA (as indicated by the 32P) entered the bacteria and was used to produce more bacteriophage
  • Conclusion: DNA is the genetic material
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40
Q

What was the phage studied by Hershey and Chase?

A

T2 phage

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41
Q

What is the structure of T2 phage?

A

core of DNA surrounded by proteins

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42
Q

What is in the pellet?

A

bacteria

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43
Q

What was the blending done for?

A

to remove empty phage coats

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44
Q

What was Rosalind Franklin missing?

A

didn’t know if the phosphate groups were on the inside or outside

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45
Q

What did the X-shaped distribution of sports in the diffraction pattern indicate?

A

DNA’s helical structure

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46
Q

What is X-ray diffraction?

A
  • An X-ray beam is directed at a molecule in the form of a regular solid (ideally a crystal)
  • Positions of atoms in the molecule are deduced from diffraction patterns produced on photographic film
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47
Q

Who discovered DNA fibers?

A

Maurice Wilkins

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48
Q

What did the molecular revolution lead to?

A

made it possible to relate genetic traits of living organisms to a universal molecular code present in the DNA of every cell

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49
Q

When did Watson and Crick find DNA structure?

A

1953

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50
Q

Whose work did Watson and Crick use to find the structure of DNA?

A

Franklin, Chargaff, and others

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51
Q

Did Watson and Crick perform any experiments?

A

nope

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52
Q

What did Watson and Crick get for discovering the structure of DNA? when?

A

Nobel Prize in 1962

53
Q

When did Franklin die of cancer?

A

1958, she was 38

54
Q

Where is the phosphate group attached to?

A

5’ carbon of sugar

55
Q

Where is the hydroxyl group attached to?

A

3’ carbon of sugar

56
Q

How do you differentiate deoxyribose vs ribose?

A

2’ carbon will have no oxygen, only a hydrogen

57
Q

What is a nucleotide composed of?

A

base, deoxyribose, and phosphate

58
Q

How are nucleotides joined together?

A

Phosphodiester bond

59
Q

Which bases need to recognize the structures of?

A

A, G, C, U

60
Q

How is a Phosphodiester bond formed?

A

Formed between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the 3′ —OH of the next nucleotide

61
Q

Why can’t C pair with A, and G pair with T?

A

because of the hydrogen bonding requirements

62
Q

How many hydrogen bonds between A-T?

A

2

63
Q

How many hydrogen bonds between G-C?

A

3

64
Q

Does DNA have a consistant diameter?

A

yes

65
Q

What is Chargaff’s rule?

A

A = T and G = C

66
Q

Does a polynucleotide chain of DNA have polarity?

A

yes

67
Q

Are DNA strands always antiparallel?

A

yes

68
Q

What does a purine always bind to?

A

pyridine

69
Q

Does A+T = G+C?

A

NOPE

70
Q

What type of replication does E coli follow?

A

prokaryotic replication

71
Q

What is a replicon?

A

DNA controlled by an origin

72
Q

What does the bidirectionally of prokaryotic replication allow?

A

shortens replication time

73
Q

What is a replisome?

A

Enzymes involved in DNA replication form a macromolecular assembly

74
Q

What do the replication forks in prokaryotic replication move to?

A

termination origin

75
Q

How many origin of replication do eukaryotes have?

A

multiple

76
Q

What is the shape of eukaryotic chromosomes?

A

linear

77
Q

Is eukaryotic chromosomes replication bidirectionally?

A

yes

78
Q

What is eukaryotic replication complicated by?

A

larger amount of DNA and linear structure

79
Q

Is the basic enzymology identical between eukaryotic and prokaryotic replication?

A

No, it is similar

80
Q

What are the 2 main components of a replisome?

A

1) primosomes (primase, helicase, SSB topoisomerase)

2) complex of 2 DNA pol III (one for each strand)

81
Q

What does primase do?

A

initiates all new strands in DNA replication

82
Q

What does DNA polymerase III do?

A

main polymerase

83
Q

What does DNA polymerase I do?

A

removes RNA primers and replaces them with deoxyribonucleotides

Acts on lagging strand to remove primers and
replace them with DNA

84
Q

What does DNA polymerase I do?

A

removes RNA primers and replaces them with deoxyribonucleotides

Acts on lagging strand to remove primers and
replace them with DNA

85
Q

What does DNA polymerase II do?

A

involved in DNA repair processes

86
Q

Which polymerase have 3′-to-5′ exonuclease activity – proofreading?

A

all 3

87
Q

What is a exonuclease?

A

chews polynucleotides from the ends

88
Q

What is a endonuclease?

A

chews polynucleotides from the middle

89
Q

Which polymerase has 5′-to-3′ exonuclase activity

A

DNA polymerase I

90
Q

What is a ribonuclease?

A

catalyzes the degradation of RNA into smaller components

91
Q

Where do nicks occur?

A

lagging strand

92
Q

What seals up the nicks?

A

DNA ligase

93
Q

What seals up the nicks?

A

DNA ligase

94
Q

Does the lagging stand loop around? if so what does this cause?

A

yes, causes the DNA polymerases to move in the same direction

95
Q

What are telomeres?

A

Protect ends of chromosomes from nucleases and maintain the integrity of linear in eukaryotic
chromosomes

96
Q

What is the result of Gradual shortening of chromosomes with each round of cell division?

A

Unable to replicate last section of lagging strand

97
Q

What happens when the RNA primer is removed?

A

eaves a gap at the 5′ end of the new DNA strand that

DNA polymerase can’t fill, – causing the chromosome to shorten with each replication.

98
Q

What is the structure of a telomere?

A

noncoding short repeating sequences (telomere repeat).

99
Q

When does Buffering fails occur?

A

when the entire telomere is lost

100
Q

What happens to the telomere after each replication?

A

some telomere repeats are lost, but the genes are unaffected

101
Q

What does telomerase do?

A

stops the shortening of telomeres by adding telomere repeats to chromosome ends.

102
Q

How does telomerase work?

A

An RNA section binds to DNA and is the template for addition of telomere repeats

103
Q

When is telomerase active?

A

rapidly dividing embryonic cells, in germ cells, and in cancerous somatic cells.

104
Q

What type of template does telomerase use?

A

RNA

105
Q

How is telomerase regulated?

A

developmentally

106
Q

There is a relationship between telomere length and?

A

senescence

107
Q

Cancer cells generally show what in telomerase?

A

activation of telomerase

108
Q

Which strand does telomerase act upon?

A

lagging strand

109
Q

What is the importance of complementary base pairing to DNA replication?

A

DNA sequence will be preserved

110
Q

Why is a primer needed for DNA replication? How is the

primer made?

A

DNA needs a free hydroxyl end to replicate, made by primase

111
Q

DNA polymerase III and DNA polymerase I are used in DNA replication in E. coli. What are their roles?

A

pol III = main replication enzyme, has 3’ to 5’ exonuclease activity

pol I = removes the primer on both strand, has 3’ to 5’ and 5’ to 3’ exonuclease activity

112
Q

Why are telomeres important?

A

prevent chromosomes from shortening during replication

113
Q

What is DNA pol 1 5’ to 3’ exonuclease activity?

A

idk

114
Q

What is a mutagen?

A

any agent that increases the number of mutations above background level

115
Q

What are some examples of mutagens?

A

Radiation and chemicals

116
Q

What has the importance of DNA repair is indicated by?

A

the multiplicity of repair systems that have

been discovered

117
Q

What corrects the errors made during replication (base-pair mismatches)? how does it work?

A

—proofreading mechanism by DNA polymerases

—The proofreading mechanism allows DNA polymerases to back up and remove mispaired nucleotides

118
Q

What type of activity does the proofreading mechanism use when correcting of errors in DNA?

A

3′→5′ exonuclease activity to remove the newly added incorrect nucleotide

119
Q

What happens after the proofreading mechanism allow correction of errors in DNA?

A

DNA polymerase then resumes forward synthesis and inserts the correct nucleotide

120
Q

How can mismatch repair enzymes find recognition sites?

A

Distortions in DNA structure

121
Q

How do the repair enzymes cut DNA?

A

cut the new DNA strand on each side of the mismatch, and remove a portion of the chain

122
Q

What happens after the repair enzymes cut out a section of DNA?

A

DNA polymerase fills the gap with new DNA, and DNA ligase seals the nucleotide chain

123
Q

How often does DNA damage occur in cells?

A

constantly

124
Q

What are the 2 type of excision repair?

A

base-excision repair and nucleotide-excision repair

125
Q

What happens in Base-excision repair?

A

repair nonbulky damage by removing the erroneous

base and replacing it with the correct one based on complementary pairing rules.

126
Q

What happens in Nucleotide-excision repair?

A

repairs bulky distortions in DNA (such as in thymine

dimers) by removing an entire segment of DNA.

127
Q

What happens to Errors that remain in DNA after proofreading and DNA repair?

A

leads to mutations

128
Q

What is the ultimate source of variability acted on by natural selection.

A

mutations

129
Q

What are thymine dimers?

A

2 thymines next to each other that form a bulky distorted structure (can be due to damage via radiation)

Biology 2311 (16 decks)

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