Chapter 14 - Lymphatic system and immunity / Chapter 20 - Acid-Base Balance

Question 1

capillary exchange

Answer 1

the exchange of material from the blood into the tissues in the capillary

Question 2

lymph

Answer 2

The fluid that flows through the lymphatic system, a system composed of lymph vessels (channels) and intervening lymph nodes whose function, like the venous system, is to return fluid from the tissues to the central circulation.
Interstitial fluid – the fluid between the cells in all body tissues – enters the lymph capillaries. This lymphatic fluid is then transported via progressively larger lymphatic vessels through lymph nodes, where substances are removed by tissue lymphocytes and circulating lymphocytes are added to the fluid, before emptying ultimately into the right or the left subclavian vein, where it mixes with central venous blood.

Question 3

lymphatic capillaries

Answer 3

Also called lymph capillary.
Tiny, thin-walled micro-vessels located in the spaces between cells (except in the central nervous system and non-vascular tissues) which serve to drain and process extracellular fluid. Upon entering the lumen of a lymphatic capillary, the collected fluid is known as lymph. Each lymphatic capillary carries lymph into a lymphatic vessel, which in turn connects to a lymph node, a small bean-shaped gland that filters and monitors the lymphatic fluid for infections. Lymph is ultimately returned to the venous circulation.

Question 4

lumen

Answer 4

(1) the cavity of a tubular organ or part
(2) the bore of a tube (as of a hollow needle or catheter)
(3) the measure of brightness from a light source

bore = the long usually cylindrical hollow part of something (such as a tube or gun barrel)

Question 5

lymphatic vessels

Answer 5

thin-walled vessels (tubes) structured like blood vessels, that carry lymph

Question 6

right lymphatic duct

Answer 6

an important lymphatic vessel that drains the right upper quadrant of the body

Question 7

thoracic duct

Answer 7

the main lymphatic vessel for the return of chyle/lymph to the systemic venous system. It drains lymph from both lower limbs, abdomen (except the convex area of the liver), left hemithorax, left upper limb and left face and neck.

Question 8

hemithorax

Answer 8

half of the thorax or, more simply, one side of the chest

Question 9

chyle

Answer 9

A milky fluid consisting of fat droplets and lymph. It drains from the lacteals of the small intestine into the lymphatic system during digestion.

Question 10

lacteal

Answer 10

one of the lymphatic vessels that serve the small intestine and, after a meal, become white from the minute fat globules that their lymph contains

Question 11

two terminal lymphatic vessels

Answer 11

The right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct, which are the only ways that lymph drains back into the blood.

Question 12

cisterna chyli

Answer 12

an enlarged pouchlike structure, located in the thoracic duct in the abdomen, which serves as a temporary holding area for lymph moving toward its point of entry into the veins

Question 13

afferent lymphatic vessels

Answer 13

Lymph enters the lymph node through one or more afferent lymphatic vessels. Afferent is from the Latin term for “carry toward.” These vessels deliver lymph to the node.

Question 14

efferent lymphatic vessel

Answer 14

Lymph exits from the node through a single efferent lymphatic vessel. Efferent is from the Latin term for “carry away from.”

Question 15

germinal center

Answer 15

a specialized microstructure that forms in secondary lymphoid tissues, producing long-lived antibody secreting plasma cells and memory B cells, which can provide protection against reinfection

Question 16

primary lymphoid tissues vs secondary lymphoid tissues

Answer 16

Lymphoid tissues are organized structures that support immune responses. The bone marrow and thymus are primary lymphoid tissues and the sites of lymphocyte development. The lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils and Peyer’s patches are examples of secondary lymphoid tissue.

Question 17

thymosin

Answer 17

a hormone, produced by the thymus gland, that promotes the development of T cells from stem cells

Question 18

involution

Answer 18

(1) the insertion of one or more clauses between the subject and the verb, in a way that involves or complicates the construction
(2) that in which anything is involved, folded, or wrapped; envelope
(2) the shrinkage of an organ in old age or when inactive, e.g. of the uterus after childbirth

Question 19

palate

Answer 19

(1) the roof of the inside of the mouth
(2) a usually intellectual taste or liking
(3) the sense of taste

Question 20

hard palate vs soft palate

Answer 20

The hard palate is the part of the palate near the front of the mouth, surrounded by most of the teeth, and which is solid when felt by the tongue.
The soft palate is the part of the palate near the back of the mouth, by the entrance to the throat, and which is soft when felt by the tongue.

Question 21

What are the three types of tonsils and their location?

Answer 21

The palatine tonsils are located on each side of the throat.
The pharyngeal tonsils, known as adenoids when they become swollen, are near the posterior opening of the nasal cavity. (not easily seen)
A third type of tonsil, the lingual tonsils, is near the base of the tongue.

Question 22

spleen

Answer 22

An organ found in all vertebrates. Similar in structure to a large lymph node, it acts primarily as a blood filter.

Question 23

specific immunity vs non-specific immunity

Answer 23

Nonspecific protective mechanisms repel all microorganisms equally, while the specific immune responses are tailored to particular types of invaders.
Specific immunity is sometimes called adaptive immunity, because it adapts to specific invaders.

Question 24

four cardinal signs of inflammation

Answer 24

redness (Latin: rubor)
heat (Latin: calor)
swelling (Latin: tumor)
pain (Latin: dolor)

Question 25

immunization

Answer 25

also called artificial immunity

the action of making a person or animal immune to infection, typically by inoculation

Question 26

inoculation

Answer 26

the introduction of a pathogen or antigen into a living organism to stimulate the production of antibodies

Question 27

complement system

Answer 27

also known as complement cascade,
its a part of the immune system that enhances (complements) the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear microbes and damaged cells from an organism, promote inflammation, and attack the pathogen’s cell membrane.
It is part of the innate immune system, which is not adaptable and does not change during an individual’s lifetime. The complement system can, however, be recruited and brought into action by antibodies generated by the adaptive immune system.

Question 28

antigen-presenting cell (APC)

Answer 28

also called accessory cell
An immune cell that detects, engulfs, and informs the adaptive immune response about an infection by “presenting” the antigen to a T-cell.

Question 29

dendritic cells (DC)

Answer 29

Dendritic cells (DC) are antigen-presenting cells.
Dendritic cells are present in those tissues that are in contact with the external environment, such as the skin (where there is a specialized dendritic cell type called the Langerhans cell) and the inner lining of the nose, lungs, stomach and intestines. They can also be found in an immature state in the blood.

Question 30

mucosal immune system

Answer 30

A complex system of defense distinct from the systemic (internal) immune system, which has been discussed in most of this chapter. It includes both innate (nonspecific) and adaptive (specific) mechanisms that are found within the mucous barriers of the body: digestive tract, urinary/reproductive tracts, respiratory tract, exocrine ducts, conjunctiva (eye covering), middle ear, and so on. The immune cells that make up the mucosal immune system are located mainly in or near mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT).

Question 31

mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

Answer 31

also called mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue
It is a diffuse system of small concentrations of lymphoid tissue found in various submucosal membrane sites of the body, such as the gastrointestinal tract, nasopharynx, thyroid, breast, lung, salivary glands, eye, and skin.

Question 32

memory cells

Answer 32

Long-lived immune cells capable of recognizing foreign particles they were previously exposed to.
Examples of memory cells are memory B cells and memory T cells. Memory B cells are clones of a parent B cell that previously served as an antigen-presenting cell and then activated by a helper T cell to proliferate. As clones, the memory B cells bear the same B cell receptors as those of the parent B cell. Therefore, they would be able to detect the same antigen when re-exposed. Memory B cells produce more robust antibody-mediated immune response during re-infection.
Memory T cells are T lymphocytes that have the similar capability of recognizing foreign particles that they previously encountered. But unlike memory B cells, the memory T cells do not produce antibodies. Re-exposure to the pathogens causes them to clone themselves immediately and as such respond to the infection more strongly.

Question 33

perinatal infection

Answer 33

An infection caused by a bacteria or virus that can be passed from a mother to her baby during pregnancy or delivery.

Question 34

azidothymidine (AZT) and ritonavir (Norvir)

Answer 34

Two HIV drugs that inhibit the progress of an HIV infection by blocking HIV’s ability to reproduce within infected cells.

Question 35

acid-base balance

Answer 35

the mechanisms the body uses to keep its fluids close to neutral pH (that is, neither basic nor acidic) so that the body can function normally

Question 36

pH

Answer 36

(historically denoting “potential of hydrogen” or “power of hydrogen”)
It is a scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous (water-containing) solution.

Water and all water solutions contain hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH−). pH is an acronym for “power of H+.” The term pH followed by a number indicates a solution’s hydrogen ion concentration compared with hydroxide concentration.

At pH 7.0 a solution contains an equal concentration of hydrogen and hydroxide ions. Therefore pH 7.0 also indicates that a fluid is neutral in reaction (that is, neither acid nor alkaline). The pH of pure water, for example, is 7.0.

A pH higher than 7.0 indicates an alkaline solution (that is, one with a lower concentration of hydrogen than hydroxide ions).
A pH lower than 7.0 indicates an acid solution (that is, one with a higher hydrogen ion concentration than hydroxide ion concentration).

The pH unit is based on exponents of 10 from one unit to the next. That means that on the pH scale moving from one unit to the next multiplies the relative H+ concentration by 10times. Thus the difference between pH 7 and pH 6 is a tenfold increase in H+. Moving from pH 7 to pH 5 is a hundredfold increase in H+ concentration.

Question 37

sciatic nerve

Answer 37

The largest nerve in the human body and is formed by the union of 5 nerve roots from the lower spine. It passes deep in the buttock and down the back of the thigh all the way to the heel and sole of the foot. The sciatic nerve serves a vital role in connecting the spinal cord with the skin and muscles of the thigh, leg, and foot.

Question 38

sciatica

Answer 38

pain that radiates along the path of the sciatic nerve

Question 39

carbonic anhydrase (CA)

Answer 39

the enzyme that converts carbon dioxide into carbonic acid

Question 40

dibasic acid

Answer 40

an acid containing two replaceable hydrogen atoms per molecule

Question 41

carbonic acid

Answer 41

a dibasic acid with the chemical formula H₂CO₃

Question 42

lactic acid

Answer 42

an organic acid mainly produced in muscle cells and red blood cells. It forms when the body breaks down carbohydrates to use for energy when oxygen levels are low

Question 43

bicarbonate loading

Answer 43

The practice of ingesting large amounts of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) to counteract the effects of lactic acid buildup. This practice is most popular in sports involving brief powerful muscle contractions that rely on aerobic respiration that quickly produces lactic acid. (e.g. swimming)
It can trigger fluid and electrolyte imbalances and long-term use can cause a disruption in the acid-base balance.

Question 44

organic acid

Answer 44

An organic compound with acidic properties.

Question 45

ketone bodies

Answer 45

Small, water-soluble compounds produced by the liver in response to reduced glucose availability.

Ketone bodies are produced by the liver during periods of caloric restriction of various scenarios: low food intake (fasting), carbohydrate restrictive diets, starvation, prolonged intense exercise, alcoholism, or during untreated (or inadequately treated) type 1 diabetes mellitus.

Ketone bodies (KBs) are considered as an alternative source of energy supply. Ketone body (KB) metabolism in humans has been a significant source of fuel of the brain in nutrient deprivation state.

Question 46

diabetic ketoacidosis

Answer 46

A serious diabetes complication where the body produces excess blood acids (ketones). This condition occurs when there isn’t enough insulin in the body. It can be triggered by infection or other illness.

Question 47

ketosis

Answer 47

the presence of elevated levels of ketone bodies in the blood

Question 48

ketonuria

Answer 48

the excretion of abnormally large amounts of ketone bodies in the urine, characteristic of diabetes mellitus, starvation, or other medical conditions

Question 49

compensation(anatomy)

Answer 49

the process by which the body attempts to counteract a shift away from homeostatic balance, thus compensating for the change and restoring the body to homeostasis

Question 50

arterial blood gas (ABG) test

Answer 50

An arterial blood gas test measures the amounts of arterial gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. An ABG test requires that a small volume of blood be drawn from the radial artery with a syringe and a thin needle, but sometimes the femoral artery in the groin or another site is used.

Question 51

radial artery

Answer 51

a large blood vessel that provides oxygenated blood to the lateral aspect of the forearm, wrist and hand
(radial in this sense refers to radius, which is a bone)

Question 52

femoral artery

Answer 52

The main blood vessel supplying blood to your lower body. It starts in your upper thigh, near your groin and runs down to the back of your knee.

Question 53

pyloric stenosis

Answer 53

a narrowing of the pylorus that blocks food from entering the small intestine; it is seen uncommonly in infants and requires surgery

Question 54

cardiac arrest

Answer 54

the sudden cessation of blood pumping by the heart

Question 55

lactate

Answer 55

The conjugate base of lactic acid. Lactic acid is the joining of lactate with a hydrogen ion. Lactate is an organic molecule produced by most tissues in the human body, with the highest production found in muscle

Question 56

conjugate base

Answer 56

a base with a hydrogen ion added to it