Chapter 14

Question 1

what are gender roles?

Answer 1

different expectations our culture has for the way men and women are supposed to act

Question 2

Traditional gender roles expect ___ to be aggressive, independent, and unemotional, whereas ___ are supposed to be passive, dependent, and affectionate.

Answer 2

men; women

Question 3

what are the two reasons for gender roles?

Answer 3

1.Biological differences between the sexes

2. Lifelong process of gender-role socialization

Question 4

how are gender roles acquired?

Answer 4

Acquired through observational learning and operant conditioning

child must first notice that a behavior is performed more often by one gender than the other

Question 5

Even before children enter ____, they are well aware of gender-role expectations

Answer 5

kindergarten

Question 6

what is the traditional approach of masculinity-femininity

Answer 6

the two were considered opposites, and the more a person was of one, the less he or she was of the other.

Question 7

what is the new approach of masculinity-femininity? (3)

Answer 7

• masculinity and femininity as independent traits
• people can be high on both traits, on only one trait, or on neither.
• because these traits are independent, knowing that someone is high or low in masculinity tells us nothing about how feminine that person is, and knowing someone’s femininity score provides no hint as to what that person’s masculinity score might be.

Question 8

(agency/communion)

____ - Independence, assertiveness, and control (similar to masculinity)

_____ - Attachment, cooperation, and interpersonal connection (similar to femininity)

Answer 8

Agency; communion

Question 9

why did we need a newer approach to masculinity-femininity?

Answer 9

Traditional approach and required to be replaced with more specific and less emotionally loaded labels

Question 10

what is the androgyny model? (3)

Answer 10

Views masculinity and femininity as independent traits

Maintains that the most well-adjusted person is both masculine and feminine

Challenges the assumption that a person’s gender should match his or her gender type

Question 11

what is an androgynous personality ?

Answer 11

Maintains that the most well-adjusted person is both masculine and feminine

Question 12

(androgynous/feminine/masculine/undifferentiated)

____ = high in both masculinity and femininity

____ = high in femininity and low in masculinity

___ = low in femininity and high in masculinity

___ = low in both masculinity and femininity

Answer 12

androgynous; feminine; masculine; undifferentiated

Question 13

(Congruence/Masculinity/Androgyny)

_____ = States that masculine men and feminine women are the most well-adjusted

____ = Maintains that being masculine is the key to mental health

____ = People whose behavioral repertoires lack either masculine or feminine behaviors are ill-prepared to respond to many situations they encounter

Answer 13

Congruence; masculinity; androgyny

Question 14

what is a simple way of examining how people react to different gender types and what do researchers find?

Answer 14

ask participants about hypothetical character sketches of individuals from each of the four gender type categories.

find the androgynous person is liked more than someone from one of the other three categories

Question 15

contrary to popular belief, members of the masculine man–feminine woman dyads enjoyed their interactions the _____

Answer 15

least

Question 16

what are the three reasons that make feminine and androgynous people preferable partners?

Answer 16

1. Feminine people score high on being sensitive to others’ needs
2. Androgynous people are more aware of and better able to express romantic feelings
3. Feminine and androgynous individuals communicate well

Question 17

_____ to act like a man or like a lady has not disappeared.

In short, societal pressure to act in narrowly defined masculine or feminine roles may do much more ___ than ___.

Answer 17

social pressure; harm; good

Question 18

Although the ____solution to this problem (social pressure) is to eliminate that pressure, in the _____, parents and friends can become more aware of subtle ways they reward and punish behavior they consider appropriate or inappropriate for males and females.

Answer 18

long-term; short-term

Question 19

People are labeled “______” when they are not only extremely high in either communion or agency, but when they are also low on the other dimension.

Answer 19

unmitigated

Question 20

what is unmitigated agency? (2)

Answer 20

People acting narcissistically, focusing on themselves to the exclusion of others

People find themselves in trouble when situations require them to rely on other people as they turn potential friends away

Question 21

what is unmitigated communion? (4)

Answer 21

People being concerned with taking care of others that they tend to sacrifice their own needs and interests

Includes people who score low on measures of well-being and self-esteem

Related to high scores on measures of depression

Evident in health issues

Question 22

what is bandora’s four step model? what are the four steps?

Answer 22

People must go through each of four steps before exposure to aggression leads them to act aggressively

1. attending to an aggressive action
2. remembering the information
3. enacting what is seen
4. expecting that rewards will be forthcoming

Question 23

how was the importance of bandura’s second step (remembering the info) demonstrated?

Answer 23

The researchers asked the children how much they liked each of the aggressive acts they saw on a videotape.

They also determined which toys used by the aggressive model each child liked. Then, as in Bandura’s classic study, the children were watched for 5 minutes while they played in a room containing all the equipment necessary to imitate the aggressive acts they had just seen.

The children were most likely to imitate the aggression when it was an act they liked and when it was performed with a toy they liked, presumably because these are the acts the children remembered

Question 24

people are more likely to imitate aggressive behaviour that is portrayed as ____

Answer 24

justified

Question 25

Research indicates that children learn aggression by imitating aggressive _____. _____ aggression, as when children play with toy guns, is one step in this process.

Answer 25

models; rehearsing

Question 26

one estimate claimed the average American child will view about ____ murders and more than ____ other acts of violence on television before leaving elementary school

Answer 26

8,000; 100,000

Question 27

what is the relationship btw mass media aggression and aggressive behaviour? (2)

Answer 27

Majority of studies found that viewing aggression increases the likelihood of acting aggressively Frequent exposure to aggressive models on television increases aggressive behavior over the short run and many years later

Question 28

the ____ of the criminal act was directly related to the amount of television watched. The more TV the 8-year-old had watched, the more ____ the adult crime.

Answer 28

seriousness; serious

Question 29

Participants who ___ violent video games are more aggressive than participants who simply ____ someone else play the more _____ the violence in the game, the stronger the effect

Answer 29

play; watch; realistic

Question 30

In other words, many of the necessary elements for imitating aggression identified by Bandura—____ to the behavior, enhanced recall through _____, seeing the behavior ______—are built into most violent video games.

Answer 30

attending, rehearsal, rewarded

Question 31

players of violent video games are rewarded for what?

Answer 31

killing police, soldiers, cyborgs, bystanders

Question 32

what features of violent games do psychologists find worrisome? (2)

Answer 32

Players do not merely watch the action (they engage in practicing violent acts) Virtually all violent video games are designed to reward violence

Question 33

(true or false) the impact of video games is only short lasting?

Answer 33

false: Impacts are both short term, widespread and long-lasting

Question 34

what is learned helplessness?

Answer 34

The cognitive, motivational, and emotional deficits that follow a perceived lack of control over important aversive events.

Question 35

explain the first experiment by Seligmann on learned helplessness

Answer 35

The animals squirmed and tried to escape, but soon came to accept that they could do nothing to avoid the shocks Whenever a signal sounded, the dogs could avoid electric shocks by simply jumping over a small partition to the other side of a shuttle-box dogs that had not gone through the earlier shock experience quickly learned to leap over the barrier to safety whenever they heard the signal The dogs that went through the inescapable shock experience lay down and quietly whines

Question 36

Psychology’s interest in learned helplessness began with the curious behavior of some dogs in a ____ conditioning study but soon evolved into a widely applied phenomenon

Answer 36

classical

Question 37

what is learned helplessness in humans (3)?

Answer 37

People learn helplessness in the initial uncontrollable setting and can’t break out of that association in subsequent situations Humans are as susceptible as laboratory animals to learned helplessness Sometimes people learn to be helpless by simply observing other people who are helpless

Question 38

what is learned helplessness in the elderly? (2)

Answer 38

Elderly may generalize the perception of uncontrollability to other areas of their lives Lack of motivation and activity seen in elderly may be a form of highly generalized learned helplessness

Question 39

explain the study on learned helplessness and the elderly?

Answer 39

- Within a few weeks, the residents in the responsibility-induced condition reported feeling happier. - Nurses, who did not know a study was going on, reported 93% of the residents showed improved adjustment, compared to only 21% of the residents in the comparison group. - differences in happiness and activity level remained in the long-term. - only 15% of the responsibility-induced residents had died during the 18-month period, compared to 30% of the comparison group.

Question 40

what are the two explanations for the discrepancies between the learned helplessness in labs being short term while in depression being long term?

Answer 40

- One explanation for this discrepancy is that there are many different causes of depression, only one of which is learned helplessness. - Another possibility is that, in a sense, people suffering from depression continually relive the initial helplessness induction. Depressed patients typically ruminate about the causes of their depression. By frequently thinking about the circumstances that brought them to their current emotional state, depressed individuals may continually reexperience the helplessness-inducing events.

Question 41

what observations led psychologists to suggest that depression develops similar to acquiring learned helplessness ? (2)

Answer 41

Investigators find changes in neurotransmitters and receptors in animals exposed to inescapable shock are similar to what we see in the neurotransmitters and receptors of depressed individuals Neurotransmitter serotonin helps in the development of learned helplessness and depression

Question 42

Learned helplessness acts as an important model for understanding _____

Answer 42

depression

Question 43

(Internal/External locus of control orientation) _____ = People can affect what happens to them. Good and bad experiences are of people’s own making _____ = People who believe that what happens to them and others is outside of their control People suffering from psychological disorders tend to be more ___ than ____

Answer 43

internal; external; external; internal

Question 44

Reasons for connection between locus of control and depression connects to the research on ______ It may be that _____ often find themselves in situations similar to that of research participants who cannot control important outcomes.

Answer 44

learned helplessness; externals

Question 45

what is the locus of control?

Answer 45

A personality trait that divides people along a continuum according to the extent to which they believe what happens to them and others is controllable.

Question 46

(internal/external) Analysis of the recordings revealed that patients described themselves in more ____ terms as they became more suicidal.

Answer 46

external

Question 47

what are the limitations to the interpretation of the relationship between depression and locus? (3)

Answer 47

1. vast majority of people scoring on the external end of locus of control scales are happy and well-adjusted. 2. Correlational. 3. the strength of the relationship between locus of control and depression may vary from culture to culture

Question 48

how does the locus of control relate to achievement in school? (3)

Answer 48

Internal students receive higher grades and better teacher evaluations than externals Reasons for internals doing better in school: - See themselves as being responsible for their achievements - Tend to attribute high test scores to their abilities or to studying hard

Question 49

true or false Higher achievement by internals is limited to the classroom.

Answer 49

false: Studies in career settings also find higher levels of performance for internal workers than for externals

Question 50

Although ideas about achievement vary across cultures, the relationship between _____ control and achievement appears to be widespread.

Answer 50

perceived

Question 51

what are 3 typical characteristics of internal students?

Answer 51

1. Good at adjusting their expectancies following feedback 2. Pay attention to information that will help them reach their goals 3. More ambitious than external students

Question 52

how does locus of control and psychotherapy relate ? (2)

Answer 52

Clients in psychotherapy tend to become more internally focused as they progress through successful therapy. The idea that therapists should give clients more control over therapy is not universally applicable. While internals may benefit from control, externals may do better when treatment remains in the therapist's hands.

Question 53

how does the locus of control and health relate? (4)

Answer 53

Internals (those who believe they control their health) tend to be healthier than externals (those who believe external factors control their health). Studies show that internals are less likely to experience heart attacks and cancer, live longer, and practice healthier habits compared to externals. Internals are more proactive in maintaining good health, engaging in activities like exercise and seeking information about health problems. The effectiveness of health messages may depend on aligning the message with the individual's locus of control; for example, internals respond better to messages emphasizing personal control.

Question 54

According to Rotter's theory, behavior is influenced by both expectancy and reinforcement value, indicating that ______ is essential for health-related behaviors.

Answer 54

valuing good health