Chapter 14 Flashcards
what are gender roles?
different expectations our culture has for the way men and women are supposed to act
Traditional gender roles expect ___ to be aggressive, independent, and unemotional, whereas ___ are supposed to be passive, dependent, and affectionate.
men; women
what are the two reasons for gender roles?
1.Biological differences between the sexes
- Lifelong process of gender-role socialization
how are gender roles acquired?
Acquired through observational learning and operant conditioning
child must first notice that a behavior is performed more often by one gender than the other
Even before children enter ____, they are well aware of gender-role expectations
kindergarten
what is the traditional approach of masculinity-femininity
the two were considered opposites, and the more a person was of one, the less he or she was of the other.
what is the new approach of masculinity-femininity? (3)
- masculinity and femininity as independent traits
- people can be high on both traits, on only one trait, or on neither.
- because these traits are independent, knowing that someone is high or low in masculinity tells us nothing about how feminine that person is, and knowing someone’s femininity score provides no hint as to what that person’s masculinity score might be.
(agency/communion)
____ - Independence, assertiveness, and control (similar to masculinity)
_____ - Attachment, cooperation, and interpersonal connection (similar to femininity)
Agency; communion
why did we need a newer approach to masculinity-femininity?
Traditional approach and required to be replaced with more specific and less emotionally loaded labels
what is the androgyny model? (3)
Views masculinity and femininity as independent traits
Maintains that the most well-adjusted person is both masculine and feminine
Challenges the assumption that a person’s gender should match his or her gender type
what is an androgynous personality ?
Maintains that the most well-adjusted person is both masculine and feminine
(androgynous/feminine/masculine/undifferentiated)
____ = high in both masculinity and femininity
____ = high in femininity and low in masculinity
___ = low in femininity and high in masculinity
___ = low in both masculinity and femininity
androgynous; feminine; masculine; undifferentiated
(Congruence/Masculinity/Androgyny)
_____ = States that masculine men and feminine women are the most well-adjusted
____ = Maintains that being masculine is the key to mental health
____ = People whose behavioral repertoires lack either masculine or feminine behaviors are ill-prepared to respond to many situations they encounter
Congruence; masculinity; androgyny
what is a simple way of examining how people react to different gender types and what do researchers find?
ask participants about hypothetical character sketches of individuals from each of the four gender type categories.
find the androgynous person is liked more than someone from one of the other three categories
contrary to popular belief, members of the masculine man–feminine woman dyads enjoyed their interactions the _____
least
what are the three reasons that make feminine and androgynous people preferable partners?
- Feminine people score high on being sensitive to others’ needs
- Androgynous people are more aware of and better able to express romantic feelings
- Feminine and androgynous individuals communicate well
_____ to act like a man or like a lady has not disappeared.
In short, societal pressure to act in narrowly defined masculine or feminine roles may do much more ___ than ___.
social pressure; harm; good
Although the ____solution to this problem (social pressure) is to eliminate that pressure, in the _____, parents and friends can become more aware of subtle ways they reward and punish behavior they consider appropriate or inappropriate for males and females.
long-term; short-term
People are labeled “______” when they are not only extremely high in either communion or agency, but when they are also low on the other dimension.
unmitigated
what is unmitigated agency? (2)
People acting narcissistically, focusing on themselves to the exclusion of others
People find themselves in trouble when situations require them to rely on other people as they turn potential friends away
what is unmitigated communion? (4)
People being concerned with taking care of others that they tend to sacrifice their own needs and interests
Includes people who score low on measures of well-being and self-esteem
Related to high scores on measures of depression
Evident in health issues
what is bandora’s four step model? what are the four steps?
People must go through each of four steps before exposure to aggression leads them to act aggressively
- attending to an aggressive action
- remembering the information
- enacting what is seen
- expecting that rewards will be forthcoming
how was the importance of bandura’s second step (remembering the info) demonstrated?
The researchers asked the children how much they liked each of the aggressive acts they saw on a videotape.
They also determined which toys used by the aggressive model each child liked. Then, as in Bandura’s classic study, the children were watched for 5 minutes while they played in a room containing all the equipment necessary to imitate the aggressive acts they had just seen.
The children were most likely to imitate the aggression when it was an act they liked and when it was performed with a toy they liked, presumably because these are the acts the children remembered
people are more likely to imitate aggressive behaviour that is portrayed as ____
justified
Research indicates that children learn aggression by imitating aggressive _____.
_____ aggression, as when children play with toy guns, is one step in this process.
models; rehearsing
one estimate claimed the average American child will view about ____ murders and more than ____ other acts of violence on television before leaving elementary school
8,000; 100,000
what is the relationship btw mass media aggression and aggressive behaviour? (2)
Majority of studies found that viewing aggression increases the likelihood of acting aggressively
Frequent exposure to aggressive models on television increases aggressive behavior over the short run and many years later
the ____ of the criminal act was directly related to the amount of television watched. The more TV the 8-year-old had watched, the more ____ the adult crime.
seriousness; serious
Participants who ___ violent video games are more aggressive than participants who simply ____ someone else play
the more _____ the violence in the game, the stronger the effect
play; watch; realistic
In other words, many of the necessary elements for imitating aggression identified by Bandura—____ to the behavior, enhanced recall through _____, seeing the behavior ______—are built into most violent video games.
attending, rehearsal, rewarded
players of violent video games are rewarded for what?
killing police, soldiers, cyborgs, bystanders
what features of violent games do psychologists find worrisome? (2)
Players do not merely watch the action (they engage in practicing violent acts)
Virtually all violent video games are designed to reward violence
(true or false)
the impact of video games is only short lasting?
false: Impacts are both short term, widespread and long-lasting
what is learned helplessness?
The cognitive, motivational, and emotional deficits that follow a perceived lack of control over important aversive events.
explain the first experiment by Seligmann on learned helplessness
The animals squirmed and tried to escape, but soon came to accept that they could do nothing to avoid the shocks
Whenever a signal sounded, the dogs could avoid electric shocks by simply jumping over a small partition to the other side of a shuttle-box
dogs that had not gone through the earlier shock experience quickly learned to leap over the barrier to safety whenever they heard the signal
The dogs that went through the inescapable shock experience lay down and quietly whines
Psychology’s interest in learned helplessness began with the curious behavior of some dogs in a ____ conditioning study but soon evolved into a widely applied phenomenon
classical
what is learned helplessness in humans (3)?
People learn helplessness in the initial uncontrollable setting and can’t break out of that association in subsequent situations
Humans are as susceptible as laboratory animals to learned helplessness
Sometimes people learn to be helpless by simply observing other people who are helpless
what is learned helplessness in the elderly? (2)
Elderly may generalize the perception of uncontrollability to other areas of their lives
Lack of motivation and activity seen in elderly may be a form of highly generalized learned helplessness
explain the study on learned helplessness and the elderly?
- Within a few weeks, the residents in the responsibility-induced condition reported feeling happier.
- Nurses, who did not know a study was going on, reported 93% of the residents showed improved adjustment, compared to only 21% of the residents in the comparison group.
- differences in happiness and activity level remained in the long-term.
- only 15% of the responsibility-induced residents had died during the 18-month period, compared to 30% of the comparison group.
what are the two explanations for the discrepancies between the learned helplessness in labs being short term while in depression being long term?
- One explanation for this discrepancy is that there are many different causes of depression, only one of which is learned helplessness.
- Another possibility is that, in a sense, people suffering from depression continually relive the initial helplessness induction. Depressed patients typically ruminate about the causes of their depression. By frequently thinking about the circumstances that brought them to their current emotional state, depressed individuals may continually reexperience the helplessness-inducing events.
what observations led psychologists to suggest that depression develops similar to acquiring learned helplessness ? (2)
Investigators find changes in neurotransmitters and receptors in animals exposed to inescapable shock are similar to what we see in the neurotransmitters and receptors of depressed individuals
Neurotransmitter serotonin helps in the development of learned helplessness and depression
Learned helplessness acts as an important model for understanding _____
depression
(Internal/External locus of control orientation)
_____ = People can affect what happens to them. Good and bad experiences are of people’s own making
_____ = People who believe that what happens to them and others is outside of their control
People suffering from psychological disorders tend to be more ___ than ____
internal; external; external; internal
Reasons for connection between locus of control and depression connects to the research on ______
It may be that _____ often find themselves in situations similar to that of research participants who cannot control important outcomes.
learned helplessness; externals
what is the locus of control?
A personality trait that divides people along a continuum according to the extent to which they believe what happens to them and others is controllable.
(internal/external)
Analysis of the recordings revealed that patients described themselves in more ____ terms as they became more suicidal.
external
what are the limitations to the interpretation of the relationship between depression and locus? (3)
- vast majority of people scoring on the external end of locus of control scales are happy and well-adjusted.
- Correlational.
- the strength of the relationship between locus of control and depression may vary from culture to culture
how does the locus of control relate to achievement in school? (3)
Internal students receive higher grades and better teacher evaluations than externals
Reasons for internals doing better in school:
- See themselves as being responsible for their achievements
- Tend to attribute high test scores to their abilities or to studying hard
true or false
Higher achievement by internals is limited to the classroom.
false: Studies in career settings also find higher levels of performance for internal workers than for externals
Although ideas about achievement vary across cultures, the relationship between _____ control and achievement appears to be widespread.
perceived
what are 3 typical characteristics of internal students?
- Good at adjusting their expectancies following feedback
- Pay attention to information that will help them reach their goals
- More ambitious than external students
how does locus of control and psychotherapy relate ? (2)
Clients in psychotherapy tend to become more internally focused as they progress through successful therapy.
The idea that therapists should give clients more control over therapy is not universally applicable. While internals may benefit from control, externals may do better when treatment remains in the therapist’s hands.
how does the locus of control and health relate? (4)
Internals (those who believe they control their health) tend to be healthier than externals (those who believe external factors control their health).
Studies show that internals are less likely to experience heart attacks and cancer, live longer, and practice healthier habits compared to externals.
Internals are more proactive in maintaining good health, engaging in activities like exercise and seeking information about health problems.
The effectiveness of health messages may depend on aligning the message with the individual’s locus of control; for example, internals respond better to messages emphasizing personal control.
According to Rotter’s theory, behavior is influenced by both expectancy and reinforcement value, indicating that ______ is essential for health-related behaviors.
valuing good health
