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PSYC 332 > Chapter 13 > Flashcards

Chapter 13 Flashcards

1
Q

what is overt behaviour?

A

That which can be observed, predicted, and controlled by scientists

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2
Q

what two principles of behaviourism help explain human behaviour?

A
  1. Classical (or Pavlovian) conditioning
  2. Operant (or instrumental) conditioning
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3
Q

what is radical behaviourism and who developed it?

A

People do not know the reason for their behavior

Developed by B. F. Skinner

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4
Q

what did radical behaviourism challenge?

A

Challenged the extent to which one is able to observe the inner causes of one’s behavior

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5
Q

skinner challenged _____, but was similar to _____

A

Watson; freud

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6
Q

how was skinner similar to freud?

A

both maintained that people simply do not know the reason for many of their behaviours

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7
Q

how did skinner describe happiness?

A

happiness as “a by product of operant reinforcement”

the things that bring happiness are the ones that reinforce us

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8
Q

do we have personal freedom/dignity according to skinner? why?

A

we don’t have personal freedom nor dignity for our actions

we respond to environmental demands and act in ways that have reinforced us in the past

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9
Q

according to classical conditioning:

Begins with an existing ______ (S-R) association

______ (UCS) evokes _____ (UCR)

_____ (UCS) paired with a ______ (CS) evokes _____(CR)

A

Begins with an existing stimulus-response (S-R) association

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) evokes unconditioned response (UCR)

Unconditioned stimulus paired with a conditioned stimulus (CS) evokes conditioned response (CR)

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10
Q

what is second-order conditioning? (classical conditioning)

A

Building one conditioned S-R association on another

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11
Q

Because the stimuli we experience are often inadvertently paired with other _____ of our environment, we are not ____ of all the many S-R associations that influence our behaviour.

A

aspects; aware

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12
Q

what are examples of the S-R associations that we aren’t aware of?

A

preference of food, clothing, friends

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13
Q

fill in the blanks (Pavlov’s experiment) using S, R, S-R, UCS, UCR, CS, CR:

He presented hungry dogs in his laboratory with meat powder (____), to which they would always salivate (___).

Because this ____ association existed without any conditioning from Pavlov, we call the meat powder the ______ and the salivation the _______.

Then Pavlov paired the old, unconditioned stimulus with a new, ______.

Whenever he presented the meat powder to the dogs, he also sounded a bell. The dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell, even though no meat powder had been presented.

The salivation had become the ______, part of a new ____ (bell tone-salivation) in the dogs’ behavioral repertoire.

A

He presented hungry dogs in his laboratory with meat powder (stimulus), to which they would always salivate (response).

Because this S-R association existed without any conditioning from Pavlov, we call the meat powder the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the salivation the unconditioned response (UCR).

Then Pavlov paired the old, unconditioned stimulus with a new, conditioned stimulus (CS).

Whenever he presented the meat powder to the dogs, he also sounded a bell. The dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell, even though no meat powder had been presented.

The salivation had become the conditioned response (CR), part of a new S-R association (bell tone-salivation) in the dogs’ behavioral repertoire.

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14
Q

what are the three limitations of classical conditioning?

A
  1. Persistence of new S-R association requires occasional pairing or reinforcement of unconditioned and conditioned stimuli
  2. Extinction - Gradual disappearance of the conditioned S-R association
  3. Impossible to create certain S-R bonds –> two events presented together will not always produce an association
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15
Q

what was thorndike’s puzzle boxes and what did it lead to?

A

Edward Thorndike put stray cats into “puzzle boxes.” To escape from the box and thereby obtain a piece of fish, the hungry cats had to engage in a particular combination of actions. Before long, the cats learned what they had to do to receive their reward.

Led to Thorndike’s law of effect

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16
Q

what does operant conditioning begin with?

A

behaviours the organism emits spontaneously (haven’t been reinforced/punished)

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17
Q

the law of effect is used in which type of conditioning?

A

operant conditioning

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18
Q

what is the law of effect?

A

Behaviors are:

  1. More likely to be repeated if they lead to satisfying consequences
  2. Less likely to be repeated if they lead to unsatisfying consequences
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19
Q

operant conditioning concerns the effect what three consequences have on the frequency of behavior?

A

reinforcement, punishment, consequence

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20
Q

(reinforcement/punishment/consequence):

_____ - Consequence that increases the frequency of a behavior

_____ - Consequence that decreases the frequency of a behavior

_____ - Reinforcement or punishment depending on the person and the situation

A

reinforcement

punishment

consequence

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21
Q

what is the purpose and application of:

  1. positive reinforcement
  2. negative reinforcement
  3. extinction
  4. punishment
A
  1. purpose: increase behaviour, application: give reward following behaviour
  2. purpose: increase behaviour, application: remove aversive stimulus following behaviour
  3. purpose: decrease behaviour, application: do not reward behaviour
  4. purpose: decrease behaviour, application: give aversive stimulus following behaviour OR take away positive stimulus
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22
Q

what are the two ways to reduce unwanted behaviours?

A
  1. Cease reinforcement and allow behaviour to extinguish (most efficient method)
  2. Punishment
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23
Q

what are the four limitations to punishment?

A
  1. Does not teach appropriate behvaiours –> decreases the frequency of undesired ones
  2. to be effective, must be delivered immediately and consistently
  3. Can have negative side effects –> associate other behaviours with the punishment instead
  4. Can create negative emotions (fear, anxiety) that can interfere with learning appropriate responses
24
Q

at best, punishment can ______ an undesirable response long enough for a parent, teacher, or therapist to reinforce a desired behavior.

A

temporarily suppress

25
Q

what type of conditioning are the following part of: shaping, generalization, discrimination?

A

operant conditioning

26
Q

(shaping/generalization/discrimination)

_____: Reinforcement of successive approximations of the desired behavior that is useful in teaching complex behaviors

______: Generalizing a response of a specific stimulus to another stimulus

_____: Differentiation between rewarding and nonrewarding stimuli

A

shaping
generalization
discrimination

27
Q

what are the behaviour-environment-behaviour interactions in social learning theory?

A
  1. Environment influences people’s behavior which in turn determines the environment people like to be a part of
  2. The way people treat you (environment) is partly the result of how you act (behavior)
28
Q

in social learning theory, individuals provide their own _____?

A

reinforcers

29
Q

what are reinforcement values (SLT)?

A

that is, how much we think we will like each of the possible consequences we expect (consistent)

30
Q

what is behaviour potential? (SLT)

A

Each of these responses (reinforcement values) has a different likelihood of occurring, what Rotter referred to as its behavior potential.

behaviour potential = expectancy + reinforcement behaviour

31
Q

what are expectancies (SLT)?

A

Expectancies are what we believe will happen if we act a certain way

32
Q

what are generalized expectancies in SLT?

A

beliefs we hold about how often our actions typically lead to reinforcements and punishments.

33
Q

what is Rotter’s locus of control? (3) SLT

A

Proposed that each of us can be placed along a continuum called locus of control.

At one end of this dimension, we find people with an extreme internal orientation. These individuals believe that most of the time what happens to them is the result of their own actions or attributes.

On the other end, we find people who hold an extreme external orientation. They maintain that much of what happens to them is the result of forces outside their control, including chance

34
Q

Rotter argued that the causes of human behaviors are far more complex than those of _______, and he introduced several “______” concepts to account for human behavior and personality.

A

lower animals; unobservable

35
Q

what is reciprocal determinism (bandura and SLT)? (3)

A
  1. External and internal determinants of behavior are part of a system of interacting influences
  2. Affect both behavior and various parts of the system
  3. People when faced with new issues, imagine possible outcomes, calculate probabilities, set goals, and develop strategies –> people use symbols and forethought as guides for future action
36
Q

what is self regulation in reciprocal determinism?

A

Controls behavior in the absence of external reinforcements and punishments

37
Q

what is observational learning? (3)

A
  1. People can learn by observing or reading or just hearing about other people’s actions
  2. Behaviors learned through observation need not be performed
  3. Performing an observed behavior depends on people’s expectations about the consequences
38
Q

explain the results of Bandura’s bobo doll experiment

A

Nearly all the children in all three groups could perform the behaviors when asked.

However, whether they chose to perform the behavior when left alone depended on the consequences they expected.

Although all the children had learned how to act aggressively, the ones who had seen the model rewarded were significantly more likely to perform the behaviors than those who had seen the model punished.

39
Q

___ conditioning takes over once the pairing of ____ conditioning is removed

A

operant; classical

40
Q

give an example of how problematic behaviours are explained in terms of reinforcing the wrong behavior

A

A socially anxious girl may have found the only escape from the criticism and ridicule she received at home was to avoid family contact as much as possible (negative reinforcement), a behavior she then generalized to other people.

41
Q

what did Watson demonstrate about abnormal behaviours? what was the point of the little Albert study?

A

John B. Watson demonstrated the creation of abnormal behaviors through normal conditioning procedures

Watson’s point was that what appeared to be an abnormal fear of white rats in an infant could be explained by the past conditioning of the child.

42
Q

what does Watson mean that “personality is the end product of habit systems”?

A
  • because we have a unique history of experiences that shaped our characteristic responses to stimuli –> each adult has a slightly different personality
  • most outrageous claim: psychologists could mold a child into whatever kind of adult they wanted
43
Q

explain phobias through the 1) behaviourists, 2) classical conditioning, 3) operant conditioning

A
  1. Behaviorists propose that irrational fears may develop through associations formed in the past, even if we are not consciously aware of them.
  2. However, classical conditioning alone cannot explain why phobias persist without intervention, as learned associations tend to extinguish once the triggering stimulus is removed.
  3. The concept of operant conditioning offers an explanation: when individuals avoid a feared stimulus and experience a reduction in anxiety, this avoidance behavior is reinforced through negative reinforcement.
44
Q

what are the classical conditioning applications? (3)

A
  1. To eliminate or replace stimulus-response associations that cause clients problems
  2. Systematic desensitization (relaxation response)
  3. aversion therapy
45
Q

what is systematic desensitization (relaxation response)? (2)

A

Replacing the old association of feared stimulus and response by a new association of stimulus and relaxation

Clients and therapists begin the treatment by creating a list of imagined scenes ranging from mildly arousing to highly anxiety provoking.

46
Q

what is aversion therapy? give an example

A

Altering problem behaviors by pairing aversive images with undesirable behaviors

For example, for a client trying to quit smoking, the image of a cigarette might be paired with images of becoming nauseated and vomiting.

47
Q

what are the 3 operant conditioning applications?

A
  1. Therapist identifies the target behavior and defines it in specific operational terms
  2. biofeedback
  3. group contingency intervention
48
Q

what is biofeedback? (3)

A
  1. Requires special equipment that provides information about somatic processes
  2. Tension headaches are one of the most common targets of biofeedback treatments.
  3. include blood pressure, heart rate, and brain waves.
49
Q

what is group contingency interventions?

A

offers rewards to all members of a group when the entire group meets the behavior goal.

50
Q

what is self-efficacy?

A

A person’s expectancy that he or she can successfully perform a given behavior.

51
Q

(outcome/efficacy)

  1. An _____ expectation is the extent to which people believe actions will lead to a certain outcome.
  2. An ____ expectation is the extent to which people believe they can perform the actions that will bring about the particular outcome (better predictors of behavior)
A

outcome; efficacy

52
Q

what are the four sources of efficacy expectations (in order of most important)?

A
  1. Enactive mastery experiences (most important)
    - These are successful attempts to achieve the outcome in the past.
    - On the other hand, a history of failures can lead to low efficacy expectations.
  2. Vicarious experiences: Seeing other people perform a behavior without adverse effects can lead us to believe that we can do it too.
  3. Verbal persuasion: Telling someone who is reluctant to stand up to the boss “you can do it” might convince the person to assert his or her rights.
  4. Physiological and affective states
53
Q

what do successful treatment programs need? (2)

A

often require changing a client’s efficacy expectation through one or more of these means.

use of guided mastery: the therapist arranges the situation so that the client is almost guaranteed a successful experience (broken down in small steps)

54
Q

what is direct observation of behaviour (3)?

A

Analogue behavioural observation (when direct not possible) _ therapist creates a situation that resembles the real-world setting in which the problem behavior is likely to occur

The behaviors to be observed must first be defined as precisely as possible.

One way to improve the accuracy of behavior observation is to have two or more observers independently code the same behaviors.

55
Q

what is self-monitoring as behaviour observation?

A

clients observe themselves

few clients can provide accurate information about these variables from memory –> therefore, therapists often ask clients to keep records of when and where they engage in certain behaviors.

56
Q

what is observation by others?

A

i.e., parents and teachers can record occurrence of a child’s behaviour

57
Q

what are the strengths of behavioural/SLT? (3)

A
  • strong empirical foundation, contrasting with other personality approaches that may rely on intuition or biased samples
  • demonstrates strength in developing effective therapeutic procedures, particularly when combined with elements from cognitive therapies.
  • expanded the behavioral approach by incorporating cognitive variables

PSYC 332 (8 decks)

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